乙酰肝素酶的生物学特性的研究进展

乙酰肝素酶是切割哺乳动物细胞中硫酸肝素蛋白多糖侧链——硫酸乙酰肝素的内源性糖苷酶,是抗肿瘤转移的理想靶点。本就乙酰肝素酶的分子结构特点、亚细胞定位、活性调控机制、与肿瘤转移的关系、底物特异性和抑制剂开发等方面的研究进展进行了综述。     

硫酸乙酰肝素、肝素酶及其与肿瘤转移的关系

细胞外基质和基底膜的降解是癌细胞穿透组织屏障发生转移的重要步骤。硫酸乙酰肝素蛋白聚糖是细胞外基质和基底膜的组成成分,其多糖侧链可以被葡萄糖苷内切酶--肝素酶,特异性识别并切割,以破坏细胞外基质和基底膜的完整性,促进肿瘤转移。临床上肿瘤患者肝素酶高表达与肿瘤恶性程度和转移发生密切相关。深入了解硫酸乙酰肝素、肝素酶及它们与肿瘤转移相关的作用机制有助于我们寻找肿瘤治疗的新思路。本文将从硫酸乙酰肝素的合成调控、功能、肝素酶的转录和活性调节、肝素酶表达与肿瘤患者的临床特征,以及硫酸乙酰肝素、肝素酶与肿瘤转移的关系进行综述。     

乙酰肝素酶与胃癌发展的关系及其检测

乙酰肝素酶是目前发现的哺乳动物细胞中惟一能切割细胞外基质中硫酸乙酰肝素蛋白多糖侧链——硫酸乙酰肝素的一种葡萄糖醛酸内切酶,在胃癌侵袭转移中起重要作用。我们就乙酰肝素酶的分子结构特点、在胃癌侵袭转移中的作用机制及其检测等方面的研究进展进行综述。     

硫酸乙酰肝素酶基因表达及其内切酶活性调控对肿瘤细胞浸润、转移作用的影响

硫酸乙酰肝素酶是迄今为止在哺乳动物细胞中发现的唯一可以剪切胞外和细胞表面硫酸乙酰肝素多糖侧链的葡糖苷酸内切酶 . 在恶性肿瘤、炎症细胞以及胚胎组织等具有侵袭性组织中有较高的表达,肿瘤病人病灶部位的肝素酶 mRNA 表达量越高,病人存活期越短 . 在正常生理条件下,肝素酶基因及其表达蛋白的活性受到启动子甲基化、变化转录剪切、转录因子、蛋白质加工、 pH 环境以及免疫因子释放等多种内源因素的精确调控,以防止机体非正常恶性变化的发生 . 目前就有关乙酰肝素酶基因表达调控、酶活性的调控机制作详尽的专述 .     

硫酸乙酰肝素在骨折愈合中的作用

硫酸乙酰肝素(heparan sulfate,HS)是由多个硫酸化结构的二糖基单位重复形成的线型多糖,并以共价键形式连接于核心蛋白质形成硫酸乙酰肝素蛋白聚糖,几乎所有动物细胞均可以合成硫酸乙酰肝素.硫酸乙酰肝素可与许多生物活性分子相结合,其中包括肝素结合性生长因子(heparin-binding growth factor,HSGF),比如成纤维细胞生长因子(basic fibroblast growth factor,FGF)、骨形态发生蛋白(bone morphogenetic protein,BMP)、β-转化生长因子(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)等.这些生长因子可促进骨的形成,但由于容易被蛋白酶降解失活而影响其临床效果,如大量使用可能导致肿瘤形成.硫酸乙酰肝素与生长因子结合可以保护生长因子免受蛋白酶降解并可促进生长因子与其受体结合,从而增强,延长生长因子的活性,并可能同时调控生长因子的信号传递,参与骨细胞的功能及活性的调节.近来在动物骨折模型中使用硫酸乙酰肝素可明显促进骨的愈合,因此硫酸已酰肝素有可能成为治疗骨折不愈合或延迟愈合的有利工具.     

乙酰肝素酶及在肿瘤治疗中的应用

乙酰肝素酶(Heparanase,Hpa)是哺乳动物体内唯一能够裂解硫酸乙酰肝素蛋白多糖的酶。通过破坏细胞外基质及基底膜结构的完整性,释放胞外基质上的各种生长因子,与肿瘤的转移、侵袭密切相关。目前的研究表明Hpa在大多数中晚期肿瘤中都有表达,尤其在恶性肿瘤中异常高表达,而Hpa表达的下调可以抑制肿瘤细胞的转移,可以作为一种抗肿瘤转移相关靶点用于中晚期肿瘤的治疗。综述了Hpa的结构与功能、对肿瘤转移的促进作用及在肿瘤治疗中的应用情况。     

多胺和硫酸乙酰肝素联合抑制与肿瘤治疗

多胺与细胞的增殖和分化密切相关。二氟甲基鸟氨酸是细胞内多胺合成的抑制剂常,作为化疗药物用于肿瘤的治疗,但其效果有时不明显,因此多采用和其他化疗药物联合应用的方案。外源性多胺的摄取依赖细胞表面的硫酸乙酰肝素,硫酸乙酰肝素可以与多种生长因子、细胞因子及化学因子结合而激活细胞的信号传递,促进细胞的增殖和血管生成。联合应用多胺合成抑制剂和硫酸乙酰肝素抑制剂对肿瘤的治疗具有良好的效果。     

乙酰肝素酶和CD105在大肠癌中的表达及其相关性

目的探讨乙酰肝素酶和CD105在大肠癌中的表达以及它们之间的关系。方法应用原位杂交方法检测乙酰肝素酶mRNA在95例大肠癌组织中的定位及表达;并用免疫组化方法对全部标本进行CD105染色,记数肿瘤微血管密度(microvesseldensity,MVD);分析乙酰肝素酶mRNA表达与大肠癌浸润、转移和血管生成之间的关系。结果95例大肠癌组织中,乙酰肝素酶mRNA阳性表达49例(51.57%),MVD平均值为(72.1±20.6);阴性表达46例(48.42%),MVD平均值为(41.3±12.4),乙酰肝素酶阳性组MVD表达与阴性组相比有显著性差异(P<0.01)。有浆膜浸润和伴淋巴结转移的大肠癌组织中,乙酰肝素酶mRNA表达阳性率分别为61.42%、63.49%,高于无浆膜浸润(24.00%)和无淋巴结转移组(28.12%),有显著差异(P<0.01)。结论乙酰肝素酶可促进大肠癌的浸润、转移和血管生成,可作为反映大肠癌生物学行为的客观指标。     

乳腺癌乙酰肝素酶、bFGF、VEGF的表达及其与肿瘤血管生成的关系

目的探讨乳腺癌中乙酰肝素酶、bFGF、VEGF的表达与乳腺癌血管生成的关系和意义。方法应用免疫组化SP法检测95例乳腺癌组织和20例癌旁正常组织中乙酰肝素酶、bFGF、VEGF和CD34的表达,并联合运用RNAi技术沉默乳腺癌细胞系MDA-MB-231乙酰肝素酶的表达,观察bFGF、VEGF的变化情况,分析乙酰肝素酶、bFGF、VEGF表达的意义以及其与乳腺癌血管形成、预后之间的关系。结果免疫组织化学染色证实乙酰肝素酶（64／95）、bFGF（72／95）和VEGF（65／95）主要表达在癌细胞质和（或）细胞膜中,在癌旁正常组织中则呈阴性表达。统计分析结果显示：乙酰肝素酶和bFGF、VEGF的表达具有明显的一致性,乙酰肝素酶阳性表达病例中bFGF、VEGF表达率明显比乙酰肝素酶阴性表达病例高,向人乳腺癌细胞系中转染乙酰肝素酶特异性siRNA,抑制乙酰肝素酶的表达后发现VEGF、bFGF的mRNA表达水平下调。乙酰肝素酶、bFGF、VEGF的表达与乳腺癌患者的肿瘤直径、临床分期、组织学分级、淋巴结转移及5年生存率密切相关,乙酰肝素酶和（bFGF／VEGF）共表达时与微血管密度的相关性比乙酰肝素酶单独表达更显著。结论乙酰肝素酶阳性表达与乳腺癌侵袭转移密切相关,乙酰肝素酶在乳腺癌中过度表达可能通过释放bFGF、VEGF促进肿瘤血管生成。     

硫酸肝素蛋白多糖在疾病中的作用

硫酸肝素蛋白多糖广泛分布于动物组织的细胞膜和细胞外基质,对于机体发育和维持生理平衡至关重要.聚糖链硫酸肝素特有的分子结构使得这类大分子复合物具有多种生物功能,这些功能主要通过与蛋白质配体的结合实现.细胞表面的硫酸肝素蛋白多糖介导多种细胞活性因子与其受体的结合,参与信号转导的过程.硫酸肝素蛋白多糖也是细胞间质的重要组成部分,与胶原蛋白一起维持间质结构的稳定.肝素酶通过降解硫酸肝素从而调节细胞因子的活性和细胞间质的微环境.因此,揭示硫酸肝素的分子结构及其功能是生物学的一个重要研究方向.然而,由于硫酸肝素结构复杂,且不均一,使得这个领域的研究发展相对缓慢.不过,随着分析手段的提高和完善,国际上对于硫酸肝素结构与功能的报道迅速增加,同时国内对于硫酸肝素的研究也逐步受到重视.关于硫酸肝素的生理功能最近已有几篇比较全面的综述.此综述主要介绍硫酸肝素在病变中的作用,旨在探讨利用硫酸肝素和肝素酶作为靶标,研发预防和治疗这些疾病药物的可能性.     

Murine macrophage heparanase: inhibition and comparison with metastatic tumor cells

Circulating macrophages and metastatic tumor cells can penetrate the vascular endothelium and migrate from the circulatory system to extravascular compartments. Both activated murine macrophages and different metastatic tumor cells (B16-BL6 melanoma; ESb T-lymphoma) attach, invade, and penetrate confluent vascular endothelial cell monlayer in vitro, by degrading heparan sulfate proteoglycans in the subendothelial extracellular matrix. The sensitivity of the enzymes from the various sources degrading the heparan sulfate proteoglycan was challenged and compared by a series of inhibitors. Activated macrophages demonstrate a heparanase with an endoglycosidase activity that cleaves from the [35S]O4 = -labeled heparan sulfate proteoglycans of the extracellular matrix 10 kDa glycosaminoglycan fragments. The macrophages do not store the heparanase intracellularly but it is instead found pericellularly and requires a continuous cell-matrix contact at the optimal pH for maintaining cell growth. The degradation of [35S]O4 = -labeled extracellular matrix proteoglycans by the macrophages' heparanase is significantly inhibited in the presence of heparan sulfate (10 micrograms/ml), arteparon (10 micrograms/ml), and heparin at a concentration of 3 micrograms/ml. In contrast, other glycosaminoglycans such as hyaluronic acid, dermatan sulfate, and chondroitin sulfate as well as the specific inhibitor of exo-beta-glucuronidase D-saccharic acid 1,4-lactone failed to inhibit the degradation of sulfated proteoglycans in the subendothelial extracellular matrix. Degradation of this heparan sulfate proteoglycan is a two-step sequential process involving protease activity followed by heparanase activity. However, the following antiproteases--alpha 2-macroglobulin, antithrombin III, leupeptin, and phenylmethylsulfony fluoride (PMSF)--failed to inhibit this degradation process, and only alpha 1-antitrypsin inhibited the heparanase activity. B16-BL6 metastatic melanoma cell heparanase, which is also a cell-associated enzyme, was inhibited by heparin to the same extent as the macrophage heparanase. On the other hand, heparanase of the highly metastatic variant (ESb) of a methylcholanthrene-induced T lymphoma, which is an extracellular enzyme released by the cells to the incubation medium, was more sensitive to heparin and arteparon than the macrophages' heparanase, inhibited at concentrations of 1 and 3 micrograms/ml, respectively. These results may indicate the potential use of heparin or other glycosaminoglycans as specific and differential inhibitors for the formation in certain cases of blood-borne tumor metastasis.     

Heparanase induces Akt phosphorylation via a lipid raft receptor

The endoglycosidase heparanase is the predominant enzyme that degrades heparan sulfate side chains of heparan sulfate proteoglycans, activity that is strongly implicated in tumor metastasis. Apart of its well characterized enzymatic activity, heparanase was noted to exert also enzymatic-independent functions. Among these is the induction of Akt/PKB phosphorylation noted in endothelial- and tumor-derived cells. Protein domains of heparanase required for signaling were not identified to date, nor were identified heparanase binding proteins/receptors capable of transmitting heparanase signals. Here, we examined the possible function of mannose 6-phosphate receptor (MPR) and low-density lipoprotein-receptor related protein (LRP), recently implicated in cellular uptake of heparanase, as heparanase receptors mediating Akt phosphorylation. We found that heparanase addition to MPR- and LRP-deficient fibroblasts elicited Akt activation indistinguishable from control fibroblasts. In contrast, disruption of lipid rafts abrogated Akt/PKB phosphorylation following heparanase addition. These results suggest that lipid raft-resident receptor mediates heparanase signaling.     

Human heparanase. Purification, characterization, cloning, and expression.

Heparan sulfate and heparan sulfate proteoglycans are present in the extracellular matrix as well as on the external cell surface. They bind various molecules such as growth factors and cytokines and modulate the biological functions of binding proteins. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are also important structural components of the basement membrane. Heparanase is an endo-beta-D-glucuronidase capable of cleaving heparan sulfate and has been implicated in inflammation and tumor angiogenesis and metastasis. In this study, we report the purification of a human heparanase from an SV40-transformed embryonic fibroblast cell line WI38/VA13 by four sequential column chromatographies. The activity was measured by high speed gel permeation chromatography of the degradation products of fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled heparan sulfate. The enzyme was purified to homogeneity, yielding a peptide with an apparent molecular mass of 50 kDa when analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Using the amino acid sequences of the N-terminal and internal heparanase peptides, a cDNA coding for human heparanase was cloned. NIH3T3 and COS-7 cells stably transfected with pBK-CMV expression vectors containing the heparanase cDNA showed high heparanase activities. The homology search revealed that no homologous protein had been reported.     

Heparanase enhances syndecan-1 shedding: a novel mechanism for stimulation of tumor growth and metastasis

When shed from the cell surface, the heparan sulfate proteoglycan syndecan-1 can facilitate the growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis of tumors. Here we report that tumor cell expression of heparanase, an enzyme known to be a potent promoter of tumor progression and metastasis, regulates both the level and location of syndecan-1 within the tumor microenvironment by enhancing its synthesis and subsequent shedding from the tumor cell surface. Heparanase regulation of syndecan-1 is detected in both human myeloma and breast cancer cell lines. This regulation requires the presence of active enzyme, because mutated forms of heparanase lacking heparan sulfate-degrading activity failed to influence syndecan-1 expression or shedding. Removal of heparan sulfate from the cell surface using bacterial heparitinase dramatically accelerated syndecan-1 shedding, suggesting that the effects of heparanase on syndecan-1 expression by tumor cells may be due, at least in part, to enzymatic removal or reduction in the size of heparan sulfate chains. Animals bearing tumors formed from cells expressing high levels of heparanase or animals transgenic for heparanase expression exhibited elevated levels of serum syndecan-1 as compared with controls, indicating that heparanase regulation of syndecan-1 expression and shedding can occur in vivo and impact cancer progression and perhaps other pathological states. These results reveal a new mechanism by which heparanase promotes an aggressive tumor phenotype and suggests that heparanase and syndecan-1 act synergistically to fine tune the tumor microenvironment and ensure robust tumor growth.     

Cell surface-expressed cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CD222) binds enzymatically active heparanase independently of mannose 6-phosphate to promote extracellular matrix degradation

Heparanase is a beta-D-endoglucuronidase that cleaves heparan sulfate, an important structural component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and vascular basement membrane (BM). The cleavage of heparan sulfate by heparanase-expressing cells, such as activated leukocytes, metastatic tumor cells, and proliferating endothelial cells, facilitates degradation of the ECM/BM to promote cell invasion associated with inflammation, tumor metastasis, and angiogenesis. In addition to its enzymatic function, heparanase has also recently been shown to act as a cell adhesion and/or signaling molecule upon interaction with cell surfaces. Despite the obvious importance of the mechanisms for the binding of heparanase to cell surfaces, the receptor(s) for heparanase remain poorly defined. In this study, we identify the 300-kDa cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CIMPR) as a cell surface receptor for heparanase. Purified platelet heparanase was shown to bind the human CIMPR expressed on the surface of a transfected mouse L cell line. Optimal binding was determined to be at a slightly acidic pH (6.5-7.0) with heparanase remaining on the cell surface for up to 10 min at 37 degrees C. In contrast, mouse L cells or Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing the cation-dependent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CDMPR) showed no binding of heparanase. Interestingly, the binding of heparanase to CIMPR was independent of Man-6-P moieties. Significantly, primary human T cells upon activation were shown to dramatically up-regulate levels of cell surface-expressed CIMPR, which showed a concomitant increase in their capacity to bind heparanase. Furthermore, the tethering of heparanase to the surface of cells via CIMPR was found to increase their capacity to degrade an ECM or a reconstituted BM. These data suggest an important role for CIMPR in the cell surface presentation of enzymatically active heparanase for the efficient passage of T cells into an inflammatory site and have implications for the use of this mechanism by other cell types to enhance cell invasion.     

Elevated Urine Heparanase Levels Are Associated with Proteinuria and Decreased Renal Allograft Function

Heparanase is an endo-β-glucuronidase that cleaves heparan sulfate side chains, leading to structural modifications that loosen the extracellular matrix barrier and associated with tumor metastasis, inflammation and angiogenesis. In addition, the highly sulfated heparan sulfate proteoglycans are important constituents of the glomerular basement membrane and its permselective properties. Recent studies suggest a role for heparanase in several experimental and human glomerular diseases associated with proteinuria such as diabetes, minimal change disease, and membranous nephropathy. Here, we quantified blood and urine heparanase levels in renal transplant recipients and patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), and assessed whether alterations in heparanase levels correlate with proteinuria and renal function. We report that in transplanted patients, urinary heparanase was markedly elevated, inversely associated with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), suggesting a relationship between heparanase and graft function. In CKD patients, urinary heparanase was markedly elevated and associated with proteinuria, but not with eGFR. In addition, urinary heparanase correlated significantly with plasma heparanase in transplanted patients. Such a systemic spread of heparanase may lead to damage of cells and tissues alongside the kidney.The newly described association between heparanase, proteinuria and decreased renal function is expected to pave the way for new therapeutic options aimed at attenuating chronic renal allograft nephropathy, leading to improved graft survival and patient outcome.     

Regulation of heparanase by albumin and advanced glycation end products in proximal tubular cells

Diabetic nephropathy is one of the main causes of end-stage renal disease, in which the development of tubular damage depends on factors such as high glucose levels, albuminuria and advanced glycation end-product. In this study, we analyzed the involvement of heparanase, a heparan sulfate glycosidase, in the homeostasis of proximal tubular epithelial cells in the diabetic milieu. In vitro studies were performed on a wild-type and stably heparanase-silenced adult tubular line (HK2) and HEK293. Gene and protein expression analyses were performed in the presence and absence of diabetic mediators. Albumin and advanced glycation end-product, but not high glucose levels, increased heparanase expression in adult tubular cells via the AKT/PI3K signaling pathway. This over-expression of heparanase is then responsible for heparan sulfate reduction via its endoglycosidase activity and its capacity to regulate the heparan sulfate-proteoglycans core protein. In fact, heparanase regulates the gene expression of syndecan-1, the most abundant heparan sulfate-proteoglycans in tubular cells. We showed that heparanase is a target gene of the diabetic nephropathy mediators albumin and advanced glycation end-product, so it may be relevant to the progression of diabetic nephropathy. It could take part in several processes, e.g. extracellular-matrix remodeling and cell-cell crosstalk, via its heparan sulfate endoglycosidase activity and capacity to regulate the expression of the heparan sulfate-proteoglycan syndecan-1.     

Translocation of active heparanase to cell surface regulates degradation of extracellular matrix heparan sulfate upon transmigration of mature monocyte-derived dendritic cells

After Ag capture and exposure to danger stimuli, maturing dendritic cells (DCs) migrate to regional lymph nodes, where antigenic peptides are presented to T lymphocytes. To migrate from peripheral tissue such as the epidermis to regional lymph nodes, Ag-bearing epidermal Langerhans cells must move through an extracellular matrix (ECM) of various compositions. The nature of their capacity to transmigrate via ECM is not well understood, although MIP-3beta and CCR7 play critical roles. We were interested in verifying whether heparanase, a heparan sulfate-degrading endo-beta-d-glucuronidase that participates in ECM degradation and remodeling, is expressed and functional in monocyte-derived DCs. Using immunohistochemistry, confocal microscopy, RT-PCR, Western blot analysis, assays for heparanase activity, and Matrigel transmigration, we show that heparanase is expressed in both nuclei and cytoplasm of immature DCs, and that gene expression and synthesis take place mainly in monocytes and early immature DCs. We also found that both nuclear and cytoplasm fractions show heparanase activity, and upon LPS-induced maturation, heparanase translocates to the cell surface and degrades ECM heparan sulfate. Matrigel transmigration assays showed a MIP-3beta-comparable role for heparanase. Because heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans play a key role in the self-assembly, insolubility, and barrier properties of the ECM, the results of this study suggest that heparanase is a key enzyme in DC transmigration through the ECM.     

Function from within: Autophagy induction by HPSE/heparanase—new possibilities for intervention

HPSE (heparanase) is the predominant enzyme in mammals capable of cleaving heparan sulfate, an activity highly implicated in cellular invasion and tumor metastasis. HPSE expression is induced in many types of cancer and increased HPSE levels are most often associated with increased tumor metastasis and reduced patient survival post operation. In addition, HPSE induction is associated with progression of the primary tumors but the mechanism(s) underlying tumor expansion by HPSE have not been sufficiently resolved. Our results establish a role for heparanase in modulating autophagy in normal and malignant cells, thereby conferring growth advantages as well as resistance to chemotherapy.