伴矿景天植物螯合肽合酶基因的克隆及功能分析

重金属超积累植物由于长期生长在高浓度的重金属环境中,使得经由植物螯合肽（phytochelatins, PCs）解毒途径来应对重金属毒害代价高昂。我们从Zn/Cd超积累植物伴矿景天（Sedum plumbizincicola）中克隆了植物螯合肽合酶（phytochelatin synthase, PCS）基因SepPCS。该基因在裂殖酵母和拟南芥中表达后都具有PCS活性,而且能够互补它们的PCs缺失突变体的Cd敏感表型。SepPCS在伴矿景天中的表达受到高浓度Cd处理的诱导。与其近亲非超积累生态型东南景天（S. alfredii）相比,虽然伴矿景天地上部PCs与Cd的摩尔比远低于东南景天,但是在高浓度Cd处理时PCs含量以及PCs与Cd的摩尔比急剧增加。我们推测在伴矿景天应对Cd毒害的过程中, PCs起到一定的作用,并且在高浓度Cd胁迫时地上部PCs依赖的解毒作用有所加强。     

植物螯合肽及其在抗重金属胁迫中的作用

植物螯合肽(PCs)广泛存在于植物体中,与植物抗重金属胁迫关系密切。植物螯合肽及其复合物是一类富含半胱氨酸的低分子量化合物。现有研究证明,PCS由谷胱甘肽(GSH)为底物的酶促反应合成,其合成受相关基因的调控,从模式植物拟南芥的突变体中已分离到与PCS合成有关的几个基因。植物螯合肽首先与重金属离子结合形成低分子量(LMW)复合物,以此形态经由细胞质进入液泡后,再与一个分子的植物螯合肽结合,形成对植物组织毒性较小的高分子量(HMW)复合物,从而达到缓解重金属对植物的危害作用。就植物螯合肽及其复合物的结构、生物合成、基因调控及重金属解毒机理等进行了综述,并对今后的研究方向提出了一些看法。     

植物络合素和植物络合素合酶的研究

植物络合素（Phytochelatins,PCs)是由于重金属离子诱导而在植物体内合成的一类小分子多肽,其结构式为（γ-Glu-Cys)n-Gly,(n=2-11);PCs能够螯合重金属,从而起到对对重金属解毒的作用,PCs并非基因的直接产物,而是由植物络合素合酶（phytochelatin syn-thase,PCS),以GSH为底物催化合成的;植物络合素合酶基因的表达是组成型的,重金属离子能够活化PCS,诱导PCs的合成。1989年,人们首次报道得到了部分纯化的PCS,10年后,3个研究小组分别于1999年同时克隆和鉴定了编码PCS的基因,这些结果不仅对于研究PCs的合成途径和模型的建立及植物抗重金属机制的探讨有重要意义,而且在利用基因工程改良植物抗重金属能力和净化环境污染方面有应用前景。     

植物螯合肽的转运与功能研究进展

植物螯合肽（phytochelatins,PCs）是由植物螯合肽合酶催化谷胱甘肽合成的一类生物小分子,结构式为（γ-Glu-Cys）n-Gly（n=2-11）,在真菌和高等植物耐受重金属胁迫机制中具有重要作用。近年来,人们在Pc介导重金属脱毒害的分子机理研究上取得了重要进展,发JLSpHMT1和SpABC2是PC在裂殖酵母中介导重金属液泡区室化的主要转运蛋白,鉴定了拟南芥液泡膜PC转运蛋AtABCC1和AtABCC2。此外,PCs也可能在超积累植物细胞内对重金属脱毒害具有重要功能。     

植物螯合肽合成酶的研究进展

植物螯合肽（phytochelatins,PCs）在植物解除重金属的毒性方面具有重要作用,其结构为（γ-Glu—Cys）n-Gly（n=2—11）,它不是基因的编码产物,而是在植物螯合肽合成酶（phytochelatin synthase,PCS）的催化下以谷胱甘肽（glutathione,GSH）为底物合成的。PCS能够被金属离子激活,高度保守的N-端是催化结构域,而其C-端则是多变的。本文就PCS的结构,功能与催化机制以及PCS的最新研究进行了介绍。     

大蒜植物络合素合酶基因转化对酵母重金属抗性的提高

重金属污染是全球面临的亟待解决的生态问题。利用植物对重金属的富集作用来清除环境重金属污染即植物修复已成为重要的环境生物技术之一。这一技术的长远发展有赖于在重金属富集或耐受中起关键作用的基因的克隆和应用。植物络合素是植物体内一类重要的对重金属起螯合作用的多肽, 其合成受植物络合素合酶的催化。该文取得了如下研究结果:1)通过原子吸收测定表明,在大蒜(Allium sativum)的根部可以积累3 000 mg·kg^-1的重金属镉;2)将克隆的大蒜植物络合素合酶基因(AsPCS)置于酵母表达启动子之下,构建酵母表达载体,并将其分别转入了因CUP1和acr3基因缺失而对重金属镉和砷敏感的酵母突变体菌株后,发现来自大蒜的AsPCS基因的表达使酵母CUP1缺失菌株对镉的耐受性提高了4倍, acr3缺失菌株对砷的耐受性提高了两倍;3)表达AsPCS基因酵母的生长模式证实了AsPCS基因的表达是酵母对重金属耐受性提高的原因。这些结果暗示, 大蒜植物络合素合酶基因在大蒜对重金属的抗性及大蒜根部对镉的积累中起关键作用,可作为重要的基因元件应用到修复污染的植物基因工程中。     

水稻受盐抑制基因OsZFP1的转基因分析

OsZFP1(水稻锌指蛋白1)基因编码的蛋白含有3个推测的Cys2/Cys2-型锌指结构域,它的表达受盐胁迫负调控。构建了以35S为启动子的OsZFP1基因的植物表达载体,并将其转入拟南芥(ArabidopsisthalianaL.)植物和水稻(OryzasativaL.)愈伤组织中以过量表达OsZFP1基因。转基因的拟南芥植株和水稻愈伤组织对盐处理的敏感性都比野生型要高。这一结果表明OsZFP1基因可能编码一种负调控蛋白,它可能抑制某些盐诱导基因的表达。在ABA处理下,转基因拟南芥植株比野生型植株抽苔晚,说明OsZFP1基因的作用可能受ABA调节。     

植物螯合肽及其在重金属耐性中的作用

综述植物螯合肽的生物合成及其在重金属耐性中的作用．有毒重金属在土壤中的积累不仅影响作物的生长和产量形成,而且严重威胁农产品的安全性．植物对重金属的耐性和积累在种间和基因型之间存在着很大的差异,在重金属胁迫条件下植物螯合肽(PC)的合成是植物对胁迫的一种适应性反应,耐性基因型合成较多的PC谷胱苷肽是合成PC的前体,PC可与重金属螯合,并进一步转运至液泡贮存,使细胞质的重金属浓度降低,从而达到解毒效果．重金属诱导植物合成PC的遗传机理和生化途径有赖于分子生物学的深入研究,cD-敏感型拟南芥突变体Cad1-1(缺失GSH)和Cad2-1(缺失PC合成诱导酶)的分离及相关研究,佐证了PC在Cd-解毒中起关键作用．对PC在重金属污染土壤或水体的植物修复和农作物安全生产中的意义进行了讨论．     

水稻受盐抑制基因OsZFP1的转基因分析

OsZFP1(水稻锌指蛋白1)基因编码的蛋白含有3个推测的Cys2/Cys2-型锌指结构域,它的表达受盐胁迫负调控.构建了以35S为启动子的OsZFP1基因的植物表达载体,并将其转入拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana L.)植物和水稻(Oryza sativa L.)愈伤组织中以过量表达OsZFP1基因.转基因的拟南芥植株和水稻愈伤组织对盐处理的敏感性都比野生型要高.这一结果表明OsZFP1基因可能编码一种负调控蛋白,它可能抑制某些盐诱导基因的表达.在ABA处理下,转基因拟南芥植株比野生型植株抽苔晚,说明OsZFP1基因的作用可能受ABA调节.     

核糖体蛋白质在翻译层次上调节λN基因表达的机理

报道大肠杆菌核糖体蛋白质S1 2或L2 4突变体均可以在翻译层次上抑制λN基因表达 .为研究其机理 ,用DNA外切酶Ⅲ(DNAExoⅢ)对λN lacZ融合基因上的λN基因部分进行了 5′→ 3′的缺失 ,以期改变λN基因的TIR(Translationalinitiationregion)或编码区 .经DNA序列分析共得到 2 3种缺失的λN lacZ融合基因 .比较它们在野生型菌株与核糖体蛋白质突变体内的β 半乳糖苷酶活性的结果表明 :( 1 )核糖体蛋白质S1 2突变体可以影响 30S小亚基同λN基因的TIR识别与结合 ,从而不利于 30S起始复合物形成 ,降低了翻译起始效率 ;( 2 )λN基因的编码区也是造成它在S1 2突变体内表达下降的原因 ;( 3)核糖体蛋白质L2 4突变体抑制λN基因表达的原因与翻译起始和λN基因 5′端的编码区无关 ,而可能与其 3′端结构基因有关     

Function of phytochelatin synthase in catabolism of glutathione-conjugates

Detoxification of xenobiotic compounds and heavy metals is a pivotal capacity of organisms, in which glutathione (GSH) plays an important role. In plants, electrophilic herbicides are conjugated to the thiol group of GSH, and heavy metal ions form complexes as thiolates with GSH-derived phytochelatins (PCs). In both detoxification processes of plants, phytochelatin synthase (PCS) emerges as a key player. The enzyme is activated by heavy metal ions and catalyzes PC formation from GSH by transferring glutamylcysteinyl residues (gamma-EC) onto GSH. In this study with Arabidopsis, we show that PCS plays a role in the plant-specific catabolism of glutathione conjugates (GS-conjugates). In contrast to animals, breakdown of GS-conjugates in plants can be initiated by cleavage of the carboxyterminal glycine residue that leads to the generation of the corresponding gamma-EC-conjugate. We used the xenobiotic bimane in order to follow GS-conjugate turnover. Functional knockout of the two PCS of Arabidopsis, AtPCS1 and AtPCS2, revealed that AtPCS1 provides a major activity responsible for conversion of the fluorescent bimane-GS-conjugate (GS-bimane) into gamma-EC-bimane. AtPCS1 deficiency resulted in a gamma-EC-bimane deficiency. Transfection of PCS-deficient cells with AtPCS1 recovered gamma-EC-bimane levels. The level of the gamma-EC-bimane conjugate was enhanced several-fold in the presence of Cd2+ ions in the wild type, but not in the PCS-deficient double mutant, consistent with a PCS-catalyzed GS-conjugate turnover. Thus AtPCS1 has two cellular functions: mediating both heavy metal tolerance and GS-conjugate degradation.     

Overexpression of phytochelatin synthase in Arabidopsis leads to enhanced arsenic tolerance and cadmium hypersensitivity

Phytochelatin synthase (PCS) catalyzes the final step in the biosynthesis of phytochelatins, which are a family of cysteine-rich thiol-reactive peptides believed to play important roles in processing many thiol-reactive toxicants. A modified Arabidopsis thaliana PCS sequence (AtPCS1) was active in Escherichia coli. When AtPCS1 was overexpressed in Arabidopsis from a strong constitutive Arabidopsis actin regulatory sequence (A2), the A2::AtPCS1 plants were highly resistant to arsenic, accumulating 20-100 times more biomass on 250 and 300 microM arsenate than wild type (WT); however, they were hypersensitive to Cd(II). After exposure to cadmium and arsenic, the overall accumulation of thiol-peptides increased to 10-fold higher levels in the A2::AtPCS1 plants compared with WT, as determined by fluorescent HPLC. Whereas cadmium induced greater increases in traditional PCs (PC2, PC3, PC4), arsenic exposure resulted in the expression of many unknown thiol products. Unexpectedly, after arsenate or cadmium exposure, levels of the dipeptide substrate for PC synthesis, gamma-glutamyl cysteine (gamma-EC), were also dramatically increased. Despite these high thiol-peptide concentrations, there were no significant increases in concentrations of arsenic and cadmium in above-ground tissues in the AtPCS1 plants relative to WT plants. The potential for AtPCS1 overexpression to be useful in strategies for phytoremediating arsenic and to compound the negative effects of cadmium are discussed.     

Leaf-targeted phytochelatin synthase in Arabidopsis thaliana

One of the key steps in developing transgenic plants for the phytoremediation of metal containing soils is to develop plants that accumulate metals in the aerial tissues. With the goal of changing the distribution of phytochelatin (PC)-dependent cadmium accumulation from roots to the leaves, the phytochelatin synthase (PCS) deficient cad1-3 mutant and wild type (Col-0) Arabidopsis plants were transformed with an Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase (AtPCS1) under the control of a leaf-specific promoter. Three independent transformant lines from each genetic background were chosen for further analysis and designated cad-PCS and WT-PCS. PCS activity in the cadPCS lines was restored in the leaves, but not in the roots. Additionally, when whole plants were treated with cadmium, PCs were found only in the leaves of cad-PCS plants. Although the inserted AtPCS1 gene was leaf-specific, cad-PCS lines showed an overall decrease in cadmium toxicity evidenced by a partial amelioration of the "brown-root" phenotype and root growth was restored to wild type levels when treated with cadmium and arsenate. WT-PCS lines showed an increase in leaf PCS activity but had only wild type PC levels. In addition, cadmium uptake studies indicated that there was no difference in cadmium accumulation among all types tested. So, while we were able to protect the plants against cadmium by expressing PC synthase only in the leaves, we were not able to limit cadmium accumulation to aerial tissues.     

Chloroplast targeting of phytochelatin synthase in Arabidopsis: effects on heavy metal tolerance and accumulation

The enzymatically synthesized thiol peptide phytochelatin (PC) plays a central role in heavy metal tolerance and detoxification in plants. In response to heavy metal exposure, the constitutively expressed phytochelatin synthase enzyme (PCS) is activated leading to synthesis of PCs in the cytosol. Recent attempts to increase plant metal accumulation and tolerance reported that PCS over-expression in transgenic plants paradoxically induced cadmium hypersensitivity. In the present paper, we investigate the possibility of synthesizing PCs in plastids by over-expressing a plastid targeted phytochelatin synthase (PCS). Plastids represent a relatively important cellular volume and offer the advantage of containing glutathione, the precursor of PC synthesis. Using a constitutive CaMV 35S promoter and a RbcS transit peptide, we successfully addressed AtPCS1 to chloroplasts, significant PCS activity being measured in this compartment in two independent transgenic lines. A substantial increase in the PC content and a decrease in the glutathione pool were observed in response to cadmium exposure, when compared to wild-type plants. While over-expressing AtPCS1 in the cytosol importantly decreased cadmium tolerance, both cadmium tolerance and accumulation of plants expressing plastidial AtPCS1 were not significantly affected compared to wild-type. Interestingly, targeting AtPCS1 to chloroplasts induced a marked sensitivity to arsenic while plants over-expressing AtPCS1 in the cytoplasm were more tolerant to this metalloid. These results are discussed in relation to heavy metal trafficking pathways in higher plants and to the interest of using plastid expression of PCS for biotechnological applications.     

Overexpression of Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase paradoxically leads to hypersensitivity to cadmium stress

Phytochelatin (PC) plays an important role in heavy metal detoxification in plants and other living organisms. Therefore, we overexpressed an Arabidopsis PC synthase (AtPCS1) in transgenic Arabidopsis with the goal of increasing PC synthesis, metal accumulation, and metal tolerance in these plants. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants were selected, designated pcs lines, and analyzed for tolerance to cadmium (Cd). Transgenic pcs lines showed 12- to 25-fold higher accumulation of AtPCS1 mRNA, and production of PCs increased by 1.3- to 2.1-fold under 85 microM CdCl(2) stress for 3 d when compared with wild-type plants. Cd tolerance was assessed by measuring root length of plants grown on agar medium containing 50 or 85 microM CdCl(2). Pcs lines paradoxically showed hypersensitivity to Cd stress. This hypersensitivity was also observed for zinc (Zn) but not for copper (Cu). The overexpressed AtPCS1 protein itself was not responsible for Cd hypersensitivity as transgenic cad1-3 mutants overexpressing AtPCS1 to similar levels as those of pcs lines were not hypersensitive to Cd. Pcs lines were more sensitive to Cd than a PC-deficient Arabidopsis mutant, cad1-3, grown under low glutathione (GSH) levels. Cd hypersensitivity of pcs lines disappeared under increased GSH levels supplemented in the medium. Therefore, Cd hypersensitivity in pcs lines seems due to the toxicity of PCs as they existed at supraoptimal levels when compared with GSH levels.     

A reassessment of substrate specificity and activation of phytochelatin synthases from model plants by physiologically relevant metals

Phytochelatin synthases (PCS) catalyze phytochelatin (PC) synthesis from glutathione (GSH) in the presence of certain metals. The resulting PC-metal complexes are transported into the vacuole, avoiding toxic effects on metabolism. Legumes have the unique capacity to partially or completely replace GSH by homoglutathione (hGSH) and PCs by homophytochelatins (hPCs). However, the synthesis of hPCs has received little attention. A search for PCS genes in the model legume Lotus (Lotus japonicus) resulted in the isolation of a cDNA clone encoding a protein (LjPCS1) highly homologous to a previously reported homophytochelatin synthase (hPCS) of Glycine max (GmhPCS1). Recombinant LjPCS1 and Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) PCS1 (AtPCS1) were affinity purified and their polyhistidine-tags removed. AtPCS1 catalyzed hPC synthesis from hGSH alone at even higher rates than did LjPCS1, indicating that GmhPCS1 is not a genuine hPCS and that a low ratio of hPC to PC synthesis is an inherent feature of PCS1 enzymes. For both enzymes, hGSH is a good acceptor, but a poor donor, of gamma-glutamylcysteine units. Purified AtPCS1 and LjPCS1 were activated (in decreasing order) by Cd2+, Zn2+, Cu2+, and Fe3+, but not by Co2+ or Ni2+, in the presence of 5 mm GSH and 50 microm metal ions. Activation of both enzymes by Fe3+ was proven by the complete inhibition of PC synthesis by the iron-specific chelator desferrioxamine. Plants of Arabidopsis and Lotus accumulated (h)PCs only in response to a large excess of Cu2+ and Zn2+, but to a much lower extent than did with Cd2+, indicating that (h)PC synthesis does not significantly contribute in vivo to copper, zinc, and iron detoxification.     

Expression of phytochelatin synthase from aquatic macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum L. enhances cadmium and arsenic accumulation in tobacco

Phytochelatin synthase (PCS), the key enzyme involved in heavy metal detoxification and accumulation has been used from various sources to develop transgenic plants for the purpose of phytoremediation. However, some of the earlier studies provided contradictory results. Most of the PCS genes were isolated from plants that are not potential metal accumulators. In this study, we have isolated PCS gene from Ceratophyllum demersum cv. L. (CdPCS1), a submerged rootless aquatic macrophyte, which is considered as potential accumulator of heavy metals. The CdPCS1 cDNA of 1,757?bp encodes a polypeptide of 501 amino acid residues and differs from other known PCS with respect to the presence of a number of cysteine residues known for their interaction with heavy metals. Complementation of cad1-3 mutant of Arabidopsis deficient in PC (phytochelatin) biosynthesis by CdPCS1 suggests its role in the synthesis of PCs. Transgenic tobacco plants expressing CdPCS1 showed several-fold increased PC content and precursor non-protein thiols with enhanced accumulation of cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) without significant decrease in plant growth. We conclude that CdPCS1 encodes functional PCS and may be part of metal detoxification mechanism of the heavy metal accumulating plant C. demersum. KEY MESSAGE: Heterologous expression of PCS gene from C. demersum complements Arabidopsis cad1-3 mutant and leads to enhanced accumulation of Cd and As in transgenic tobacco.     

Expression of Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase 2 is too low to complement an AtPCS1-defective Cad1-3 mutant

Phytochelatins play an important role in heavy metal detoxification in plants as well as in other organisms. The Arabidopsis thaliana mutant cad1-3 does not produce detectable levels of phytochelatins in response to cadmium stress. The hypersensitivity of cad1-3 to cadmium stress is attributed to a mutation in the phytochelatin synthase 1 (AtPCS1) gene. However, A. thaliana also contains a functional phytochelatin synthase 2 (AtPCS2). In this study, we investigated why the cad1-3 mutant is hypersensitive to cadmium stress despite the presence of AtPCS2. Northern and Western blot analyses showed that expression of AtPCS2 is weak compared to AtPCS1 in both roots and shoots of transgenic Arabidopsis. The lower level of AtPCS2 expression was confirmed by RT-PCR analysis of wild type Arabidopsis. Moreover, no tissue-specific expression of AtPCS2 was observed. Even when AtPCS2 was under the control of the AtPCS1 promoter or of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (CaMV 35S) it was not capable of fully complementing the cad1-3 mutant for cadmium resistance.     

Overexpression of Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase in tobacco plants enhances Cd2+ tolerance and accumulation but not translocation to the shoot

Phytochelatins (PCs) are metal binding peptides involved in heavy metal detoxification. To assess whether enhanced phytochelatin synthesis would increase heavy metal tolerance and accumulation in plants, we overexpressed the Arabidopsis phytochelatin synthase gene (AtPCS1) in the non-accumulator plant Nicotiana tabacum. Wild-type plants and plants harbouring the Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolB oncogene were transformed with a 35S AtPCS1 construct. Root cultures from rolB plants could be easily established and we demonstrated here that they represent a reliable system to study heavy metal tolerance. Cd²⁺ tolerance in cultured rolB roots was increased as a result of overexpression of AtPCS1, and further enhanced when reduced glutathione (GSH, the substrate of PCS1) was added to the culture medium. Accordingly, HPLC analysis showed that total PC production in PCS1-overexpressing rolB roots was higher than in rolB roots in the presence of GSH. Overexpression of AtPCS1 in whole seedlings led to a twofold increase in Cd²⁺ accumulation in the roots and shoots of both rolB and wild-type seedlings. Similarly, a significant increase in Cd²⁺ accumulation linked to a higher production of PCs in both roots and shoots was observed in adult plants. However, the percentage of Cd²⁺ translocated to the shoots of seedlings and adult overexpressing plants was unaffected. We conclude that the increase in Cd²⁺ tolerance and accumulation of PCS1 overexpressing plants is directly related to the availability of GSH, while overexpression of phytochelatin synthase does not enhance long distance root-to-shoot Cd²⁺ transport.