密点麻蜥的两性异形和雌性繁殖

蜥蜴繁殖成功率与其形态特征有密切的关系。作者在内蒙古乌拉特后旗采集密点麻蜥(Eremias multio-cellata) ,定量研究该种形态特征的两性异形和雌体繁殖特征,检验与成体形态特征相关的两性繁殖成功率差异是否能促进两性异形的进化。密点麻蜥成体个体大小无显著的两性差异,但头部大小两性差异显著;雄性个体的头长和头宽均大于体长相同的雌性成体。繁殖雌体于五、六月份排卵;在实验室条件下,雌体在六月下旬至七月下旬之间产仔。该种雌体年产单窝仔,每窝2 -4仔。窝仔重与雌体体长呈正相关,但雌体体长仅能解释很少一部分(约19 %)窝仔重的变异。窝仔数和幼仔重均与雌体体长无关。幼仔重与相对生育力(相对于雌体体长的窝仔数)呈显著的负相关,表明该种蜥蜴存在后代数量-大小之间的权衡。密点麻蜥雄体和雌体向较大体型方向进化的选择压力均相对较弱,与成体头部大小相关的两性繁殖成功率的差异是导致该种蜥蜴头部大小两性异形进化的主要原因[动物学报52 (2) : 250 -255 , 2006]。     

青海沙蜥的两性异型和雌性繁殖

作者研究了青海沙蜥(Phrynocephalus vlangalii)形态特征的两性异形和雌体繁殖特征。蜥蜴于2005年5月初捕自西宁以西约150km的倒淌河,被检形态特征包括体色、体长、腹长、尾长、头长和头宽,新排卵雌体维持在实验室梯度热环境中直至产仔。成体两性异形显著,而性未成熟个体缺乏两性异形。最大的成年雄体和雌体分别为70.2mmSVL(snout-vent length)和82.8mmSVL。雄性成体具有相对较大的头长、头宽和尾长,雌性成体SVL大于雄体且具有相对较大的腹长。对4个形态特征进行主成分分析(特征值≥0.5)区分出2个主成分,共解释83.9%的两性相关形态特征的变异。去除SVL差异的影响后,尾长、头长和头宽在第一主成分有较高的正负载系数(解释57.8%的变异),腹长在第二主成分有较高的负负载系数(解释26.1%的变异)。实验室梯度热环境下的雌体于6月下旬至7月中旬产单窝、2-6个后代。窝仔数和窝仔重与母体SVL呈正相关,幼仔重与母体SVL无关。未在青海沙蜥中检测到后代数量与大小之间的权衡。     

The variance of incubation temperatures does not affect the phenotype of hatchlings in a colubrid snake, Xenochrophis piscator

It has been documented in some reptiles that fluctuating incubation temperatures influence hatchling traits differently than constant temperatures even when the means are the same between treatments; yet whether the observed effects result from the thermal variance, temperature extremes or both is largely unknown. We incubated eggs of the checkered keelback snake Xenochrophis piscator under one fluctuating (Ft) and three constant (24, 27 and 30 °C) temperatures to examine whether the variance of incubation temperatures plays an important role in influencing the phenotype of hatchlings. The thermal conditions under which eggs were incubated affected a number of hatchling traits (wet mass, SVL, tail length, carcass dry mass, fatbody dry mass and residual yolk dry mass) but not hatching success and the sex ratio of hatchlings. Body sizes were larger in hatchlings from incubation temperatures of 24 and 27 °C compared with the other two treatments. Hatchlings from the four treatments could be divided into two groups: one included hatchlings from the 24 and 27 °C treatments, and the other included hatchlings from the 30 °C and Ft treatments. In the Ft treatment, the thermal variance was not a significant predictor of all examined hatchling traits, and incubation length was not correlated with the thermal variance when holding the thermal mean constant. The results of this study show that the mean rather than the variance of incubation temperatures affects the phenotype of hatchlings.     

中国石龙子雌体繁殖特征和卵孵化的地理变异

浙江丽水和广东韶关中国石龙子均年产单窝卵,窝卵数,窝卵重和卵重均与雌体SVL呈正相关,雌体头部形态,繁殖特征,产卵起始时间和孵孵化的热依赖性等有显著的地理变异;韶关石龙子产卵起始时间为5月中旬,比丽水经子约早两周,韶关石龙子窝卵数较大,卵较小,窝卵重与丽水石龙子无显著差异。韶关石龙子特定SVL的窝卵数比丽水石龙子多2．8枚卵,中国经子卵数量和大小之间有种群间权衡,无种数内权衡,同一种群内卵数量与卵大小无关,孵化温度影响石龙子孵出幼体的一些特征,24℃孵出细幼体比32℃孵出幼体大,躯干发育好,剩余卵黄少,韶关24℃孵出幼体的体重,躯干干重小于丽水幼体,韶关32℃孵出幼体的SVL小于丽水幼体,剩余卵黄大于丽水幼体,表明适宜卵孵化温度范围有地理变异。丽水石龙子卵对极端高温和低温的耐受性较强,适宜卵孵化温度范围较宽。     

水热环境对白条草蜥孵化卵和孵出幼体表型特征的影响

用4×2(温度×湿度)八种水热环境孵化安徽滁州琅琊山白条草蜥(Takydromus wolteri)卵,观测孵化卵重量变化、胚胎利用卵内物质和能量以及孵出幼体的特征。卵从孵化环境中吸水导致重量增加,卵重量的增加与入孵卵重量、孵化温度和基质湿度有关。两种孵化基质湿度对孵化期、孵化成功率、孵出幼体性比和大小都无显著影响。孵化期随恒定孵化温度的升高而缩短,27℃、30℃和33℃孵化期分别为32.5、24.9和23.0d,波动温度孵化期为31.1d。33℃孵化成功率最低(42.8%)。温度对孵化成功率和孵出幼体的性别无显著影响,但显著影响胚胎对卵内物质的动用、幼体的大小和重量。33℃不适宜孵化白条草蜥卵,该温度下孵出的幼体躯干小,剩余卵黄多,运动能力差。27℃和波动温度中孵出幼体躯干发育良好,各项被测定的特征指标极其相似。     

Sexual dimorphism in desiccation responses of the sand scorpion Smeringurus mesaensis (Vaejovidae)

The osmoregulatory and respiratory responses of male and female Smeringurus mesaensis (Vaejovidae) to prolonged desiccation were measured. No significant effect of sex on mass-loss rates (MLRs) was found. Still, females maintained their haemolymph osmolality when desiccated to 10% mass loss, whereas that of males increased significantly after loss of as little as 5% of initial mass. Females had a 3-fold larger hepatopancreas, significantly higher hepatopancreas water content and higher metabolic rates when adjusted to hepatopancreas-free dry mass. Thus, females not only store more water in the hepatopancreas but also mobilise it to the haemolymph at a higher rate during desiccation, thus maintaining haemolymph osmolality. Gas exchange rates of both males and females decrease as desiccation progresses. An initial respiratory exchange ratio (RER) of approximately 0.9 is followed by a significant increase at mass loss levels of 7.5% and higher. RER values greater than 1.0 may result from partial shift to anaerobic catabolism, which allows closure of the book lung spiracles for longer duration, thus minimising respiratory water loss. The effects of gas exchange rates on rates of water mobilisation between body compartments and water loss to the environment suggest a trade-off between maintaining osmotic stability and conserving body water stores under stressful conditions.     

Sexual dimorphism in the human bony pelvis, with a consideration of the Neandertal pelvis from Kebara Cave, Israel.

Sexual dimorphism of the human pelvis is inferentially related to obstetrics. However, researchers disagree in the identification and obstetric significance of pelvic dimorphisms. This study addresses three issues. First, common patterns in dimorphism are identified by analysis of pelvimetrics from six independent samples (Whites and Blacks of known sex and four Amerindian samples of unknown sex). Second, an hypothesis is tested that the index of pelvic dimorphism (female mean x 100/male mean) is inversely related to pelvic variability. Third, the pelvic dimensions of the Neandertal male from Kebara cave, Israel are compared with those of the males in this study. The results show that the pelvic inlet is the plane of least dimorphism in humans. The reason that reports often differ in the identification of dimorphisms for this pelvic plane is that both the length of the pubis and the shape of the inlet are related to nutrition. The dimensions of the pelvis that are most dimorphic (that is, female larger than male) are the measures of posterior space, angulation of sacrum, biischial breadth, and subpubic angle. Interestingly, these dimensions are also the most variable. The hypothesis that variability and dimorphism are inversely related fails to be supported. The factors that influence pelvic variability are discussed. The Kebara 2 pelvis has a spacious inlet and a confined outlet relative to modern males, though the circumferences of both planes in the Neandertal are within the range of variation of modern males. The inference is that outlet circumference in Neandertal females is also small in size, but within the range of variation of modern females. Arguments that Neandertal newborns were larger in size than those of modern humans necessarily imply that birth was more difficult in Neandertals.     

The apelinergic system: Sexual dimorphism and tissue-specific modulations by obesity and insulin resistance in female mice

It has been proposed that the apelinergic system (apelin and its receptor APJ) may be a promising therapeutic target in obesity-associated insulin resistance syndrome. However, due to the extended tissue-distribution of this system, the therapeutic use of specific ligands for APJ may target numerous tissues resulting putatively to collateral deleterious effects. To unravel specific tissular dysfunctions of this system under obesity and insulin-resistance conditions, we measured the apelinemia and gene-expression level of both apelin (APL) and APJ in 12-selected tissues of insulin-resistant obese female mice fed with a high fat (HF) diet. In a preliminary study, we compared between adult male and female mice, the circadian plasma apelin variation and the effect of fasting on apelinemia. No significant differences were found for these parameters suggesting that the apelinemia is not affected by the sex. Moreover, plasma apelin level was not modulated during the four days of the estrous cycle in females. In obese and insulin-resistant HF female mice, plasma apelin concentration after fasting was not modified but, the gene-expression level of the APL/APJ system was augmented in the white adipose tissue (WAT) and reduced in the brown adipose tissue (BAT), the liver and in kidneys. BAT apelin content was reduced in HF female mice. Our data suggest that the apelinergic system may be implicated into specific dysfunctions of these tissues under obesity and diabetes and that, pharmacologic modulations of this system may be of interest particularly in the treatment of adipose, liver and renal dysfunctions that occur during these pathologies.     

北草蜥卵孵化过程中物质和能量的动态

研究北草蜥卵在温、湿度分别为 3 0℃、 -12kPa的条件下 ,孵化过程中物质和能量的动用以及胚胎生长。孵化过程中 ,每隔 5天称量卵重。孵化第 10天起 ,每隔 5天解剖来自不同窝的卵 15枚 ,并分离成胚胎、卵壳和卵黄三组分。孵出幼体称重后冰冻处死 ,之后解剖分离成躯干、剩余卵黄和脂肪体。所有材料 65℃烘至恒重 ,用索氏脂肪提取器测定脂肪含量 ,氧弹热量计测定能值 ,马福炉测定灰分含量。本研究北草蜥卵的孵化期为 2 8 1天。卵孵化时从基质中吸水导致重量增加。卵孵化 0 -10天、 11-2 0天、 2 1-2 5天、 2 6-2 8天 ,胚胎分别利用新生卵能量的 12 %、 3 5%、 3 7%和 15%。 0 -10天 ,胚胎生长较缓慢 ;10天后生长迅速。卵孵化过程中 ,干物质、非极性脂肪和能量的转化率分别为 69 7%、 3 7 0 %和 53 1%。初生幼体的能量组分为 :躯干95 2 % ,脂肪 2 4% ,剩余卵黄 2 4%。本研究结果显示 :北草蜥从新生卵到孵出幼体的物质和能量转化率较低 ;胚胎发育所需要的无机物来自卵黄和卵壳     

Sexual dimorphism in cuticular hydrocarbons of the Australian field cricket Teleogryllus oceanicus (Orthoptera: Gryllidae)

Sexual dimorphism is presumed to reflect adaptive divergence in response to selection favouring different optimal character states in the two sexes. Here, we analyse patterns of sexual dimorphism in the cuticular hydrocarbons of the Australian field cricket Teleogryllus oceanicus using gas chromatography. Ten of the 25 peaks found in our chromatographs, differed in their relative abundance between the sexes. The presence of sexual dimorphism in T. oceanicus is discussed in reference to a review of sexual dimorphism in cuticular hydrocarbons of other insects. We found that this trait has been examined in 103 species across seven different orders. Seventy-six of these species (73%) displayed sex specificity of cuticular hydrocarbons, the presence/absence of which does not appear to be directly linked to phylogeny. The occurrence of sexual dimorphism in cuticular hydrocarbons of some but not other species, and the extent of variation within genera, suggest that this divergence has been driven primarily by sexual selection.     

Sexual dimorphism in two subspecies of Ethiopian baboons (Papio hamadryas) and their hybrids

Sexual dimorphism in mammals has been related to such variables as absolute body size, ecology, and various aspects of social behaviour. Attempts to relate dimorphism to any of these variables have necessarily used small heterogeneous samples to represent the relevant species. We are concerned by the inevitable exclusion of any measure of variability in dimorphism and the consequent impossiblity of assessing the significance of observed interspecific differences. In this paper we describe aspects of sexual dimorphism in anubis,hamadryas, and hybrid baboons from Ethiopia. Samples are large enough to permit a measure of intrapopulation variability. Hamadryas baboons are more dimorphic than anubis in epigamic features, but not in postcanine dentition, nor, contrary to previous reports, in body weight or canine tooth size. Hybrid males are more hamadryas-like and hybrid females more anubis-like, as would be predicted by the proposed mechanism for the establishment of the hybrid zone, namely the capture of anubis females by hamadryas males.     

Phenotypic variation in hatchling Chinese ratsnakes (Zaocys dhumnades) from eggs incubated at constant temperatures

We incubated eggs of the Chinese ratsnake Zaocys dhumnades at four constant temperatures (24, 27, 30 and 30 °C) to examine the effects of incubation temperature on hatching success and hatchling phenotypes. Incubation length increased nonlinearly as temperature decreased, with the mean incubation length being 76.7 d at 24 °C, 57.4 d at 27 °C, 47.3 d at 30 °C, and 44.1 d at 33 °C. Hatching successes were lower at the two extreme temperatures (69% at 24 °C, and 44% at 33 °C) than at the other two moderate temperatures (96% at 27 °C, and 93% at 30 °C). Incubation temperature affected nearly all hatchling traits examined in this study. Incubation of Z. dhumnades eggs at 33 °C resulted in production of smaller hatchlings that characteristically had less-developed carcasses but contained more unutilized yolks. Hatchlings from eggs incubated at 27 and 30 °C did not differ in any examined traits. Taking the rate of embryonic development, hatching success and hatchling phenotypes into account, we conclude that the temperature range optimal for incubation of Z. dhumnades eggs is narrower than the range of 24−33 °C but should be wider than the range of 27−30 °C.     

Sexual size dimorphism, growth and maturity of the Japanese fluvial sculpin,Cottus pollux (large egg type), in the Inabe River, Mie prefecture, central Japan

The population structure of the Japanese fluvial sculpin,Cottus pollux (large egg type), in the upper reaches of the Inabe River, Mie Prefecture, central Japan, was investigated by a mark-and-recapture method from July 1989 to January 1991. Breeding of the species occurred from mid February to early May, peaking from mid February to late March. The mean size of mature males observed in March 1990 was significantly larger than that of females, showing apparent sexual size dimorphism. Data analysis of the growth of 1658 marked individuals revealed that the species matured at 2 years of age in both sexes. Whereas 1 year old males reached ca. 50–70 mm SL, females were less than 50 mm SL at the same age, size dimorphism already being apparent. Immature males exhibited higher growth rates than females during their first and second years, some of the former outstripping mature males of the preceding year class in total length. After attaining sexual maturity, both males and females grew mainly from July to December, with no significant differences in mean growth rate between them. Sexual size dimorphism of the species seems to be attributable to different growth rates between the sexes during their immature stage.     

Sexual dimorphism in Champsosaurus (Diapsida, Choristodera)

Two nearly complete specimens of Champsosaurus (Diapsida, Choristodera) with distinctive morphologies, from the Tullock Formation (Early Paleocene) of northeastern Montana, USA, were described as different species. The limb bones of C. ambulator are more robust than those of C. laramiensis, indicating that C. ambulator was more adapted for walking than C. laramiensis. The phylogenetic significance of these limb bone morphologies, however, appears questionable because similar dimorphic variations occur in a closely related genus and champsosaurs from other geologic ages and locations. Female champsosaurs may have been better adapted to a terrestrial life than males due to nesting behavior on land, resulting in variable limb bone morphologies between sexes. The observed morphologic variations are, hence, hypothesized to reflect sexual dimorphism rather than sympatry of species. The C. ambulator-shaped humeri and femora, demonstrating a terrestrial adaptation, are suggested to belong to females and C. laramiensis-shaped limb bones to males. No significant variations of humeral and femoral morphologies occur in small champsosaur specimens, suggesting an aquatic niche for juveniles like adult males.     

Mating behavior,egg deposition,incubation period,and hatching in the clearnose skate,Raja eglanteria

Synopsis Adult clearnose skates, Raja eglanteria, were captured during the winters of 1981 and 1983, and observed to mate in captivity. Mating and egg depositions take place on the central west coast of Florida from December through mid-May. During copulation the male holds the trailing edge of the female's right or left pectoral fin firmly in his mouth, swings his tail beneath hers and inserts one clasper into the distal end of her reproductive tract. Copulation may last one to four hours during which time sperm pass from the urogenital papilla of the male along the clasper groove to the female. Sperm move cranially to the upper portion of the shell gland where they are stored and remain viable for at least three months. The ovum is fertilized in the shell gland. The egg case bears a prominent projection or horn at each corner. The two posterior ones are shorter and bear tendrils which are covered with a sticky substance that insures attachment to the substrate when the egg is deposited. Fertilized eggs are laid in pairs at intervals ranging from 1 to 13 days (mean of 4.5 ± 2.2 days). As development proceeds within the egg case a plugged slit on the lateral side of each horn opens and permits seawater to wash the developing embryo. Incubation periods for eggs maintained between 20–22°C decrease in duration throughout the egg laying season, ranging from 94 days initially to 77 days for eggs laid later in the spring. At hatching, the anterior end of the egg case ruptures, and the skate emerges abruptly with its pectoral fins rolled dorsally.     

Sexual dimorphism in inorganic mercury toxicokinetics and the attendant lipotoxic and non-lipotoxic dyslipidemia in the rat

The influence of variability in the biology of living organisms is poorly appreciated in toxicology. However, multiple lines of evidence indicate that sex-differences modulate toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics from cellular/molecular to whole animal levels resulting in different toxic responses of living organisms to xenobiotics exposure. In order to investigate the influence of sex in inorganic mercury (Hg) exposure, male and female Wistar rats were exposed to 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mg Hg/kg body weight orally as HgCl₂ twice a week for 12 weeks. Higher Hg levels in the females (except heart) as compared to males were observed in the animals. At the highest dose of inorganic Hg, female renal Hg content was 3.3 times higher than that of the males. Mixed sexual dimorphism characterised circulating-lipid- and organ-lipid lipotoxic and non-lipotoxic dyslipidemia. The highest dose of inorganic Hg, induced hypercholesterolemia in the males as opposed to hypocholesterolemia in the female. Plasma and erythrocyte free fatty acids increased in both sexes, although the increase was more pronounced in the male. Reverse cholesterol transport was inhibited in the male at the highest dose of Hg, whereas female HDL became enriched with cholesterol. Female erythrocytes had all their lipids increased, whereas only male erythrocyte triglyceride increased. Brain cholesterol and phospholipids, and splenic phospholipids were depleted in both sexes. Our findings indicate that inorganic Hg exposure appears to affect Hg and lipid kinetics differently in both sexes, thus underscoring the need to develop sex-tailored approaches in the treatment of metal toxicosis and its metabolic outcomes.     

Floral display, pollinator visitation and reproductive success in the dioecious perennial herb Wurmbea dioica (Liliaceae)

Floral traits that increase attractiveness to pollinators are predicted to evolve through selection on male function rather than on female function. To determine the importance of male-biased selection in dioecious Wurmbea dioica, we examined sexual dimorphism in flower size and number and the effects of these traits on pollinator visitation and reproductive success of male and female plants. Males produced more and larger flowers than did females. Bees and butterflies responded to this dimorphism and visited males more frequently than females, although flies did not differentiate between the sexes. Within sexes, insect pollinators made more visits to and visited more flowers on plants with many flowers. However, visits per flower did not vary with flower number, indicating that visitation was proportional to the number of flowers per plant. When flower number was experimentally held constant, visitation increased with flower size under sunny but not overcast conditions. Flower size but not number affected pollen removal per flower in males and deposition in females. In males, pollen removal increased with flower size 3 days after flowers opened, but not after 6 days when 98% of pollen was removed. Males with larger flowers therefore, may have higher fitness not because pollen removal is more complete, but because pollen is removed more rapidly providing opportunities to pre-empt ovules. In females, pollen deposition increased with flower size 3 days but not 6 days after flowers opened. At both times, deposition exceeded ovule production by four-fold or more, and for 2 years seed production was not limited by pollen. Flower size had no effect on seed production per plant and was negatively related to percent seed set, implying a tradeoff between allocation to attraction and reproductive success. This indicates that larger flower size in females is unlikely to increase fitness. In both sexes, gamete production was positively correlated with flower size. In males, greater pollen production would increase the advantage of large flowers, but in females more ovules may represent a resource cost. Selection to increase flower size and number in W. dioica has probably occurred through male rather than female function. Received: 15 June 1997 / Accepted: 12 February 1998     

Sexual size dimorphism,growth, and maturity of the fluvial eight-barbel loach in the Kako River,Japan

The maturation and growth pattern of the fluvial eight-barbel loach Lefua sp. (Japanese name: nagare-hotoke-dojo), an endangered species, was investigated using an individual identification-recapture method from 1995 to 1998 in an upper reach of a headwater tributary of the Kako River, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. Based on observations of the gonads through the abdominal skin, the loach was estimated to breed mostly from May to July. All the males matured by age 1⁺, and all the females matured by age 2⁺. Gamete release in all individuals of both males and females was predicted from recaptured loaches during each breeding season. The standard length of mature females was significantly larger than that of males, showing sexual size dimorphism (SSD). The maximum sizes recorded were 75.4 mm SL for females and 61.2 mm SL for males. Both males and females of immature specimens grew mainly from May to November, including the breeding season, with no significant differences in growth rates between them. After sexual maturity, both males and females grew mainly from July to October (or November), after the breeding season, and the females exhibited higher growth rates than males. Therefore, SSD of the species seems to be attributable to the different growth rates after maturity. The longevity of the loach was estimated to exceed ten years based on individual growth patterns of various sizes during the survey period. It is likely that the loach has an iteroparous life history, breeding every year, and moderate growth rates after maturity.     

A comparative study of egg mass and clutch size in the Anseriformes

The factors explaining interspecific differences in clutch investment in precocial birds are poorly understood. We investigated how variations in clutch characteristics are related to environmental factors in a comparative study of 151 extant species of ducks, geese and swans (Anseriformes). Egg mass was negatively related to clutch size in a phylogenetic regression, a relationship that was much stronger when controlling for female mass. Nest placement was related to both egg size and clutch size, with cavity-nesting species laying more but smaller eggs. Egg size was positively correlated with incubation period and with female mass, and also with sexual size dimorphism (i.e. male mass relative to that of the female). Clutch size was not related to female mass. Species with long term pair bonds laid smaller clutches and larger eggs. The size of the breeding range was strongly positively correlated with clutch size and clutch mass, and its inclusion in multivariate models made other biogeographical variables (hemisphere, breeding latitude or insularity) non-significant. The small clutches in insular species appear to be a product of small range size rather than insularity per se. Our results suggest there is an evolutionary trade-off between clutch and egg size, and lend support to Lack’s resource-limitation hypothesis for the waterfowl.     

Sexual size dimorphism in the ontogeny of the solitary predatory wasp Symmorphus allobrogus (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)

Sex-specific patterns of individual growth, resulting in sexual size dimorphism (SSD), are a little studied aspect of the ontogeny related to the evolutionary history and affected by the ecology of a species. We used empirical data on the development of the predatory wasp Symmorphus allobrogus (Hymenoptera, Vespidae) to test the hypotheses that sexual differences of growth resulting in the female-biased SSD embrace the difference in (1) the egg size and the starting size of larva, (2) the larval development duration, and (3) the larval growth rate. We found that eggs developing into males and females have significant differences in size. There was no significant difference between the sexes in the duration of larval development. The relative growth rate and the food assimilation efficiency of female larvae were significantly higher than compared to those of male larvae. Thus, the SSD of S. allobrogus is mediated mainly by sexual differences in egg size and larval growth rate.