锌转运体ZNT7在Alzheimer病动物模型APP/PS1转基因鼠脑内的表达

目的研究阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer disease,AD）模型小鼠APP/PS1转基因小鼠脑内锌转运体ZNT7的分布和表达,探讨ZNT7参与Aβ老年斑形成的机理。方法应用免疫组织化学染色观察ZNT7在脑内分布情况,应用Western Blot方法分析ZNT7在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑内的表达。结果ZNT7免疫阳性反应产物主要分布在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑皮层、纹状体和海马的老年斑内,强阳性的ZNT7免疫产物定位于老年斑的核心。Western Blot分析结果表明ZNT7在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑内的表达明显高于野生型小鼠。结论ZNT7在APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑内的高表达以及在Aβ老年斑的定位,提示ZNT7可能参与了锌离子在老年斑内的聚集,进而参与了APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑内老年斑的形成。     

Tau/APP/PS1三转基因小鼠模型的建立及生物学特征

目的:建立Tau/APP/PS1三转基因小鼠模型,从分子生物学、行为学及病理学角度研究其生物学特征。方法:将自行建立的Tau转基因小鼠与Jackson实验室引种的APP/PS1双转基因小鼠杂交、传代;PCR鉴定小鼠基因型;RT-PCR检测外源基因的转录;Western blot测定外源基因的蛋白表达;Bielschowsky氏染色法和ABC免疫组化法观察大脑神经纤维缠结和老年斑等病理改变;Morris水迷宫观测学习记忆的改变。结果:Tau/APP/PS1三转基因小鼠的大脑可转录和表达Tau、APP和PS1三种外源基因,6~8月龄时大脑皮层和海马可见神经元纤维缠结和老年斑,其学习记忆获得能力在6月龄开始受损。结论:建立的Tau/APP/PS1三转基因小鼠具有Tau和Aβ两种病理改变和学习记忆障碍,为深入探究Tau与Aβ的关系、阐明AD的发病机制以及研发靶点治疗药物提供实验工具。     

APP/PS1转基因鼠脑内小泛素化修饰物-1上调可能参与阿尔茨海默病老年斑形成和神经突起变性的调节北大核心CSCD

小泛素化修饰物(small ubiquitin-related modifier,SUMO)是一类重要的类泛素蛋白,研究显示一些神经退行性疾病相关蛋白可以被SUMO化修饰。本文旨在观察APP/PS1转基因阿尔茨海默病(Alzheimer’s disease,AD)鼠中SUMO-1表达及修饰的变化,并探讨SUMO-1与AD病理的关系。采用免疫印迹的方法检测12月龄的APP/PS1转基因AD鼠脑内SUMO-1表达及修饰的变化,同时用免疫共沉淀及免疫荧光的方法研究AD鼠脑内SUMO-1与tau、APP和Aβ的关系。结果显示:(1)与正常野生型小鼠相比,AD鼠脑内SUMO-1表达及其修饰的蛋白增加,同时伴有泛素化蛋白的增加;(2)AD鼠大脑皮层的RIPA可溶蛋白组份中,SUMO-1修饰的tau增加,而AT8抗体识别的磷酸化tau的SUMO-1修饰减少,但422位点磷酸化tau的SUMO-1修饰没有明显改变;(3)SUMO-1与磷酸化tau、APP及Aβ免疫荧光双标显示,在AD鼠脑内SUMO-1可在老年斑的中部和周围分布,并且SUMO-1与AT8识别的磷酸化tau在老年斑周围的变性神经突起中有相对较多的共存,但与APP、PS422识别的磷酸化tau和Aβ的共定位很少。以上结果提示,SUMO-1在APP/PS1转基因AD小鼠脑内表达增加,并可能参与变性神经突起及老年斑形成的调节。     

H102对APP转基因小鼠脑内淀粉样蛋白和淀粉样蛋白前体蛋白表达的影响

目的:研究H102对APP695转基因模型小鼠脑内淀粉样蛋白和淀粉样蛋白前体蛋白表达的影响方法:9月龄转基因小鼠随机分为模型组和药物注射组,正常对照组采用月龄和性别与之相匹配的C57BL/6J小鼠。药物注射组给予侧脑室注射H102,每只每次3μl,连续10d;模型组和正常对照组给予等体积NS。应用免疫组织化学结合刚果红组织学染色,普通光学显微镜观察海马和颞叶皮层蛋白表达的变化。免疫印迹法检测小鼠大脑皮层APP蛋白的表达。结果:Aβ和APP免疫组化染色结果显示对照组海马CA1区神经元胞浆着色呈阴性或弱阳性,模型组较对照组阳性细胞增多,表达增强,胞浆着色明显加深。药物注射组同模型组相比,胞浆着色变淡,表达减弱。刚果红染色观察转基因小鼠模型组和H102注射组大脑颞叶皮层和海马的淀粉样斑块,可见H102注射组淀粉样斑块数较模型组明显减少。正常对照组未见阳性淀粉样斑块。免疫印迹检测显示模型组APP蛋白表达明显增加,给药组与模型组相比具有统计学意义。结论:APP695转基因小鼠大脑CA1区Aβ蛋白和APP蛋白表达增加,H102能够明显抑制该转基因小鼠Aβ蛋白和APP蛋白表达。     

APP／PS双转基因阿尔茨海默病小鼠模型的老年斑及行为学动态分析

目的研究APP／PS1双转基因阿尔茨海默病小鼠模型老年斑形成和行为改变的动态过程。方法将转APPswe突变基因小鼠与转PSAE9基因突变小鼠杂交,PCR鉴定APPswe／PSAE9双突变转基因小鼠的基因表型,筛选阳性小鼠建立APPswe／PS／kE9双转基因C57BL／6J小鼠模型。抗邮免疫组化、改良Bieschowsky银染法、Thioflavin-S荧光分别动态检测3、4、5、6、9、12月龄APPswe／PSAE9双转基因小鼠大脑病理改变。荷兰Noldus公司EthovisionXT监测分析软件动态观察3、6、9月龄的APPswe／PSAE9双转基因小鼠Morris水迷宫行为学改变。利用SPSS16．0软件统计分析。结果建立了人APPswe／PSAE9双转基因阿尔茨海默病小鼠模型。3月龄APP／PS1双转基因小鼠大脑组织抗Aβ1—17免疫组织化学、改良Bieschowsky银染法、Thioflavin—S荧光未检测到有明显老年斑形成。4．5月龄APPswe／PSAE9双转基因小鼠大脑组织上述三种方法均可检测到老年斑。9、12月龄双转基因小鼠老年斑数量体积明显增加,出现与阿尔茨海默病患者较相似的老年斑改变。Morris水迷宫试验发现3、6、9月龄APPswe／PSAE9双转基因小鼠行为学结果与同月龄野生型小鼠有差异,说明与同月龄野生型小鼠相比出现记忆学习能力缺陷（P〈0．05）。结论成功建立了人APPswe／PSAE9双转基因小鼠阿尔茨海默病模型,为阿尔茨海默病发病机制研究和药物研发提供了有价值的动物模型。     

姜黄素对阿尔茨海默病小鼠海马InR和IGF1R表达的影响

目的观察姜黄素对阿尔茨海默病（Alzheimer＇sdisease,AD）模型APP／PS1双转基因小鼠胰岛素受体（insulinreceptor,InR）和胰岛素样生长因子1受体（insulin·likegrowthfactor1receptor,IGF1R）表达的影响。方法将3月龄的APP／PS1双转基因小鼠随机分为模型组、阳性罗格列酮对照组（每日10ms／kg）、姜黄素大（每日400mg／kg）、中（每日200mg／kg）、小剂量组（100mg／kg）,正常组为相同背景非转基因小鼠。灌胃3个月后,应用免疫组织化学和Westernblot方法进行检测。结果InR和IGF1R免疫组化染色,模型组小鼠大脑海马CA1区较正常对照组InR阳性细胞明显增加（P〈0．01）,姜黄素干预组有所恢复;而模型组小鼠大脑海马CA1区较正常对照组IGF1R阳性细胞明显减少（P〈0．01）,姜黄素干预组有所恢复。Western blot检测海马InR和IGF1R的蛋白表达结果与免疫组织化学检测结果一致。结论姜黄素可以使APP／PS1双转基因小鼠海马增加的InR和减少的IGF1R得以恢复,改善APP／PS1双转基因小鼠胰岛素信号转导。     

游泳运动对APP/PS1转基因小鼠学习记忆能力的影响

探讨游泳运动对APP/PS1转基因小鼠学习记忆能力的影响。选择11月龄的雄性APP/PS1转基因小鼠,随机平均分为对照组和游泳组,对照组常规饲养而游泳组进行1个月的游泳运动训练。分别采用刚果红染色、Tunel检测、Western Blot和Morris水迷宫等实验方法观察小鼠大脑皮层Aβ斑形成、神经元凋亡、线粒体生成相关蛋白表达和学习记忆能力的变化情况。结果发现,游泳运动可以减少APP/PS1转基因小鼠大脑皮层Aβ斑的形成、抑制神经元凋亡、促进线粒体生成、增强小鼠的学习记忆能力。由此可见,游泳运动可作为一项防治阿尔茨海默病的行为治疗候选方案。     

COX-2特异性抑制剂罗非昔布对阿尔茨海默病Aβ沉积的影响

本文应用免疫荧光、Western blot及ELISA等实验方法检测COX-2特异性抑制剂罗非昔布对阿尔茨海默病Aβ沉积的影响。实验分为三组,即对照组、AD模型组以及罗非昔布处理组。实验结果发现,与对照组小鼠相比,APP/PS1转基因小鼠脑内Aβ沉积及老年斑的数量增多、体积增大,Aβ1-40和Aβ1-42的含量增加,β-分泌酶和γ-分泌酶(包括BACE1、PS1、PS2、NCT)表达升高,并且小鼠脑内COX-2表达升高;小鼠经罗非昔布干预后,脑内Aβ沉积和老年斑数量减少、APP裂解酶和COX-2表达水平较AD模型组明显降低,以上结果说明COX-2特异性抑制剂罗非昔布可能通过抑制COX-2从而间接降低β-分泌酶和γ-分泌酶的活性,下调PS1、PS2、BACE1、NCT等分泌酶的表达,最终减少Aβ沉积和老年斑的形成,缓解阿尔茨海默病的发生与发展。     

石杉碱甲对阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠脑内β-淀粉样蛋白表达的影响

本文主要观察石杉碱甲对阿尔茨海默病转基因小鼠脑内β-淀粉样蛋白表达的影响。应用免疫荧光技术检测Aβ在C57BL/6野生型小鼠、APP/PS1转基因小鼠及石杉碱甲治疗组小鼠脑内的表达情况,同时应用Western blot和Real-Time PCR的方法检测Aβ形成所需的β-、γ-分泌酶亚基Bace1及PS1在脑内的表达。结果发现石杉碱甲治疗后的AD模型小鼠脑内Aβ表达及含量与AD组相比明显减少,Bace1及PS1的表达都有明显的减少。以上结果说明石杉碱甲可通过降低APP/PS1转基因小鼠脑内Bace1、PS1的表达进而降低γ-分泌酶的活性,从而使AD小鼠脑内的Aβ蛋白表达水平下降,提示石杉碱甲在AD的临床治疗方面具有重要的理论意义。     

雌激素缺乏对痴呆小鼠学习记忆及海马区细胞增殖和成熟的影响

该文旨在研究雌激素缺乏不同时间段对APP/PS1双转基因小鼠学习记忆及海马区细胞增殖和成熟的影响及探究潜在的机制。将3月龄APP/PS1双转基因AD雌性小鼠行双侧卵巢切除(AD-OVX),以假手术AD小鼠(AD-Sham)及同月龄正常野生型小鼠(WT)作为对照,于术后1周(模拟绝经早期)和3月(模拟绝经中晚期), Morris水迷宫行为测试结果显示,在APP/PS1双转基因AD小鼠中, OVX后1周, AD-OVX组与AD-Sham组比较,其逃避潜伏期、搜索路径以及穿越平台的次数无明显差异(P0.05);而OVX后3月, AD-OVX组小鼠找到平台的时间和搜索路径显著延长(P0.05),穿越平台的次数也相应减少(P0.05);子宫重量结果、EDU细胞增殖状况、老年斑、脑内NeuN蛋白和芳香酶的变化水平分别显示,在APP/PS1双转基因AD小鼠中, OVX后1周, AD-OVX组与ADSham组比较,循环雌激素水平无明显变化;小鼠脑内未见老年斑;小鼠海马区新生阳性细胞数量和NeuN的表达反应性增多(P0.05);此时小鼠脑内芳香酶表达也呈反应性升高(P0.05)。而OVX后3月, AD-OVX组小鼠循环雌激素水平明显降低(P0.05);脑内老年斑显著增加(P0.05);小鼠海马区新生阳性细胞数量和NeuN的表达减少(P0.05);此时小鼠脑内芳香酶水平也显著降低(P0.05)。以上结果说明,雌激素缺乏早期可反应性地增加痴呆小鼠海马区细胞的增殖和成熟,对小鼠学习记忆无影响;但随着雌激素缺乏时间的延长,痴呆小鼠出现学习记忆的损害及海马区细胞增殖和成熟减少;该作用可能与脑内芳香酶水平的变化密切相关。     

Interactions between amyloid-β and hemoglobin: implications for amyloid plaque formation in Alzheimer's disease

Accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides in the brain is one of the central pathogenic events in Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, why and how Aβ aggregates within the brain of AD patients remains elusive. Previously, we demonstrated hemoglobin (Hb) binds to Aβ and co-localizes with the plaque and vascular amyloid deposits in post-mortem AD brains. In this study, we further characterize the interactions between Hb and Aβ in vitro and in vivo and report the following observations: 1) the binding of Hb to Aβ required iron-containing heme; 2) other heme-containing proteins, such as myoglobin and cytochrome C, also bound to Aβ; 3) hemin-induced cytotoxicity was reduced in neuroblastoma cells by low levels of Aβ; 4) Hb was detected in neurons and glial cells of post-mortem AD brains and was up-regulated in aging and APP/PS1 transgenic mice; 5) microinjection of human Hb into the dorsal hippocampi of the APP/PS1 transgenic mice induced the formation of an envelope-like structure composed of Aβ surrounding the Hb droplets. Our results reveal an enhanced endogenous expression of Hb in aging brain cells, probably serving as a compensatory mechanism against hypoxia. In addition, Aβ binds to Hb and other hemoproteins via the iron-containing heme moiety, thereby reducing Hb/heme/iron-induced cytotoxicity. As some of the brain Hb could be derived from the peripheral circulation due to a compromised blood-brain barrier frequently observed in aged and AD brains, our work also suggests the genesis of some plaques may be a consequence of sustained amyloid accretion at sites of vascular injury.     

Exogenous seeding of cerebral β-amyloid deposition in βAPP-transgenic rats

Deposition of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide in senile plaques and cerebral Aβ angiopathy (CAA) can be stimulated in Aβ-precursor protein (APP)-transgenic mice by the intracerebral injection of dilute brain extracts containing aggregated Aβ seeds. Growing evidence implicates a prion-like mechanism of corruptive protein templating in this phenomenon, in which aggregated Aβ itself is the seed. Unlike prion disease, which can be induced de novo in animals that are unlikely to spontaneously develop the disease, previous experiments with Aβ seeding have employed animal models that, as they age, eventually will generate Aβ lesions in the absence of seeding. In the present study, we first established that a transgenic rat model expressing human APP (APP21 line) does not manifest endogenous deposits of Aβ within the course of its median lifespan (30?months). Next, we injected 3-month-old APP21 rats intrahippocampally with dilute Alzheimer brain extracts containing aggregated Aβ. After a 9-month incubation period, these rats had developed senile plaques and CAA in the injected hippocampus, whereas control rats remained free of such lesions. These findings underscore the co-dependence of agent and host in governing seeded protein aggregation, and show that cerebral Aβ-amyloidosis can be induced even in animals that are relatively refractory to the spontaneous origination of parenchymal and vascular deposits of Aβ.     

Chronic intranasal treatment with an anti-Aβ(30-42) scFv antibody ameliorates amyloid pathology in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ)-directed active and passive immunization therapeutic strategies reduce brain levels of Aβ, decrease the severity of beta-amyloid plaque pathology and reverse cognitive deficits in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD). As an alternative approach to passive immunization with full IgG molecules, single-chain variable fragment (scFv) antibodies can modulate or neutralize Aβ-related neurotoxicity and inhibit its aggregation in vitro. In this study, we characterized a scFv derived from a full IgG antibody raised against the C-terminus of Aβ, and studied its passage into the brains of APP transgenic mice, as well as its potential to reduce Aβ-related pathology. We found that the scFv entered the brain after intranasal application, and that it bound to beta-amyloid plaques in the cortex and hippocampus of APP transgenic mice. Moreover, the scFv inhibited Aβ fibril formation and Aβ-mediated neurotoxicity in vitro. In a preventative therapeutic approach chronic intranasal treatment with scFv reduced congophilic amyloid angiopathy (CAA) and beta-amyloid plaque numbers in the cortex of APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. This reduction of CAA and plaque pathology was associated with a redistribution of brain Aβ from the insoluble fraction to the soluble peptide pool. Due to their lack of the effector domain of full IgG, scFv may represent an alternative tool for the treatment of Aβ-related pathology without triggering Fc-mediated effector functions. Additionally, our observations support the possibility that Aβ-directed immunotherapy can reduce Aβ deposition in brain vessels in transgenic mice.     

Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis extract GJ-4 alleviated cognitive deficits of APP/PS1 transgenic mice

BackgroundAccumulating evidence demonstrates that traditional Chinese medicines that act on multiple targets could effectively treat various multi-etiological diseases, including cerebrovascular diseases, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD) and so on. Previous studies have shown that crocin richments (GJ-4), Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis extract, provide neuroprotective effects on cognitive impairments in AD mouse models. However, the mechanism how GJ-4 improves cognition remains still unclear.PurposeThe aim of this study was to uncover the protective effects and underlying mechanism of GJ-4 on PrP-hAβPPswe/PS1^ΔE9 (APP/PS1) transgenic mice.MethodsAPP/PS1 mice were given GJ-4 (10, 20, and 50 mg/kg), donepezil (5 mg/kg) and memantine (5 mg/kg) orally at eight months of age for 12 consecutive weeks. Morris water maze and novel object recognition were conducted to assess the cognitive ability of mice. The release of inflammatory cytokines was determined by RT-PCR assay, and the pathological features of neurons and microglia were assayed by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence assay. The expression of Aβ-related proteins and signaling pathways were determined by Western blot.ResultsThe behavioral results revealed that GJ-4 ameliorated the cognitive deficits of APP/PS1 mice measured by Morris water maze and novel object recognition tests. Mechanism studies indicated that GJ-4 significantly decreased β-amyloid (Aβ) level through reducing Aβ production and promoting Aβ degradation. It has been reported that Aβ plaques trigger the hyper-phosphorylation of tau protein in APP/PS1 mice. Consistent with previous studies, hyper-phosphorylation of tau was also occurred in APP/PS1 mice in the present study, and GJ-4 inhibited Tau phosphorylation at different sites. Overwhelming evidence indicates that neuroinflammation stimulated by Aβ and hyperphosphorylated tau is involved in the pathological progression of AD. We found that GJ-4 suppressed neuroinflammatory responses in the brain through regulating phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase/AKT (PI3K/AKT) signaling pathway activation, and subsequent expression of inflammatory proteins and release of inflammatory cytokines.ConclusionAltogether, GJ-4 ameliorated cognition of APP/PS1 transgenic mice through multiple targets, including Aβ, tau and neuroinflammation. This study provides a solid research basis for further development of GJ-4 as a potential candidate for the treatment of AD.     

Proteomic identification of specifically carbonylated brain proteins in APP(NLh)/APP(NLh) × PS-1(P264L)/PS-1(P264L) human double mutant knock-in mice model of Alzheimer disease as a function of age

Alzheimer disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia and is characterized pathologically by the presence of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), senile plaques (SPs), and loss of synapses. The main component of SP is amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ), a 39 to 43 amino acid peptide, generated by the proteolytic cleavage of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the action of beta- and gamma-secretases. The presenilins (PS) are components of the γ-secretase, which contains the protease active center. Mutations in PS enhance the production of the Aβ42 peptide. To date, more than 160 mutations in PS1 have been identified. Many PS mutations increase the production of the β-secretase-mediated C-terminal (CT) 99 amino acid-long fragment (CT99), which is subsequently cleaved by γ-secretase to yield Aβ peptides. Aβ has been proposed to induce oxidative stress and neurotoxicity. Previous studies from our laboratory and others showed an age-dependent increase in oxidative stress markers, loss of lipid asymmetry, and Aβ production and amyloid deposition in the brain of APP/PS1 mice. In the present study, we used APP (NLh)/APP(NLh) × PS-1(P246L)/PS-1(P246L) human double mutant knock-in APP/PS-1 mice to identify specific targets of brain protein carbonylation in an age-dependent manner. We found a number of proteins that are oxidatively modified in APP/PS1 mice compared to age-matched controls. The relevance of the identified proteins to the progression and pathogenesis of AD is discussed.     

Conditional inactivation of nicastrin restricts amyloid deposition in an Alzheimer's disease mouse model

Production of Aβ by γ‐secretase is a key event in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The γ‐secretase complex consists of presenilin (PS) 1 or 2, nicastrin (ncstn), Pen‐2, and Aph‐1 and cleaves type I transmembrane proteins, including the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Although ncstn is widely accepted as an essential component of the complex required for γ‐secretase activity, recent in vitro studies have suggested that ncstn is dispensable for APP processing and Aβ production. The focus of this study was to answer this controversy and evaluate the role of ncstn in Aβ generation and the development of the amyloid‐related phenotype in the mouse brain. To eliminate ncstn expression in the mouse brain, we used a ncstn conditional knockout mouse that we mated with an established AD transgenic mouse model (5XFAD) and a neuronal Cre‐expressing transgenic mouse (CamKIIα‐iCre), to generate AD mice (5XFAD/CamKIIα‐iCre/ncstn^f/f mice) where ncstn was conditionally inactivated in the brain. 5XFAD/CamKIIα‐iCre/ncstn^f/f mice at 10 week of age developed a neurodegenerative phenotype with a significant reduction in Aβ production and formation of Aβ aggregates and the absence of amyloid plaques. Inactivation of nctsn resulted in substantial accumulation of APP‐CTFs and altered PS1 expression. These results reveal a key role for ncstn in modulating Aβ production and amyloid plaque formation in vivo and suggest ncstn as a target in AD therapeutics.     

Role of phosphatidylinositol clathrin assembly lymphoid-myeloid leukemia (PICALM) in intracellular amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing and amyloid plaque pathogenesis

One of the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer disease is the accumulation of amyloid plaques in the extracellular space in the brain. Amyloid plaques are primarily composed of aggregated amyloid β peptide (Aβ), a proteolytic fragment of the transmembrane amyloid precursor protein (APP). For APP to be proteolytically cleaved into Aβ, it must be internalized into the cell and trafficked to endosomes where specific protease complexes can cleave APP. Several recent genome-wide association studies have reported that several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the phosphatidylinositol clathrin assembly lymphoid-myeloid leukemia (PICALM) gene were significantly associated with Alzheimer disease, suggesting a role in APP endocytosis and Aβ generation. Here, we show that PICALM co-localizes with APP in intracellular vesicles of N2a-APP cells after endocytosis is initiated. PICALM knockdown resulted in reduced APP internalization and Aβ generation. Conversely, PICALM overexpression increased APP internalization and Aβ production. In vivo, PICALM was found to be expressed in neurons and co-localized with APP throughout the cortex and hippocampus in APP/PS1 mice. PICALM expression was altered using AAV8 gene transfer of PICALM shRNA or PICALM cDNA into the hippocampus of 6-month-old APP/PS1 mice. PICALM knockdown decreased soluble and insoluble Aβ levels and amyloid plaque load in the hippocampus. Conversely, PICALM overexpression increased Aβ levels and amyloid plaque load. These data indicate that PICALM, an adaptor protein involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, regulates APP internalization and subsequent Aβ generation. PICALM contributes to amyloid plaque load in brain likely via its effect on Aβ metabolism.     

Nitration of tyrosine 10 critically enhances amyloid β aggregation and plaque formation

Part of the inflammatory response in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the upregulation of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) resulting in increased NO production. NO contributes to cell signaling by inducing posttranslational protein modifications. Under pathological conditions there is a shift from the signal transducing actions to the formation of protein tyrosine nitration by secondary products like peroxynitrite and nitrogen dioxide. We identified amyloid β (Aβ) as an NO target, which is nitrated at tyrosine 10 (3NTyr(10)-Aβ). Nitration of Aβ accelerated its aggregation and was detected in the core of Aβ plaques of APP/PS1 mice and AD brains. NOS2 deficiency or oral treatment with the NOS2 inhibitor L-NIL strongly decreased 3NTyr(10)-Aβ, overall Aβ deposition and cognitive dysfunction in APP/PS1 mice. Further, injection of 3NTyr(10)-Aβ into the brain of young APP/PS1 mice induced β-amyloidosis. This suggests a disease modifying role for NOS2 in AD and therefore represents a potential therapeutic target.