三峡库区森林凋落叶化学计量学性状变化及与分解速率的关系

凋落物分解是森林生态系统生物元素循环和能量流动的重要环节,其过程是植物与土壤获得养分的主要途径。为了量化凋落叶化学计量学性状变化过程对分解的影响及对凋落物-土壤生物化学连续体的深层理解,用凋落物分解袋法研究了不同林型各自凋落叶化学计量学性状变化及与分解速率关系,结果表明:林下各自凋落叶分解速率是马尾松林栓皮栎林马尾松-栓皮栎混交林,马尾松林、栓皮栎林、马尾松-栓皮栎混交林凋落叶分解50%和95%的时间分别是2.11 a和9.15 a,1.93 a和8.45 a,1.76 a和7.77 a;凋落叶分解过程中,化学计量学性状变化明显,分解450 d后马尾松-栓皮栎混交林碳释放最快,栓皮栎林最慢;3种凋落叶起始N含量是栓皮栎林最高,马尾松林最低,分解450 d后马尾松林、栓皮栎林和马尾松-栓皮栎混交林N含量分别增加了66.67%、44.91%和44.52%,而P含量分别释放了30.80%、38.89%和42.29%。凋落物不同化学计量学性状与分解速率关系不同,3种林型凋落叶分解速率均与N含量呈正相关(P0.01),与C含量(P0.01)、C/N比(P0.01)呈负相关,与N/P比呈负二次函数关系(P0.01),而P含量与3种林型关系不同,与栓皮栎林(P0.01)和马尾松林(P0.05)呈负线性关系,与马尾松-栓皮栎混交林呈负二次函数关系(P0.05)。研究表明,不同林型凋落叶分解中的养分动态趋向利于分解变化,N、P养分动态是生态系统碳平衡和凋落物分解速率的主要因素,混交林中混合凋落物的养分迁移是分解相对较快的原因。     

华南典型人工林凋落物的持水特性

对于华南地区的杉木 (Cunninghamialanceolata) 林、马尾松 (Pinusmassoniana) 林、湿地松 (Pinuselliottii) 林、马占相思 (Acaciamangium) 林和尾叶桉 (Eucalyptusurophylla) 林的凋落物的储量、持水量、持水率和吸水速率进行了研究。结果表明, 杉木林的凋落物的干重 (6.5× 10 3 kg·hm-2 ) 最大, 其次是马尾松林和马占相思林 (5.5× 10 3 kg·hm-2 ), 而湿地松林 (4.1× 10 3 kg·hm-2 ) 和尾叶桉林较小 (4.0× 10 3 kg·hm-2 ) 。凋落物持水量呈现杉木林 >马占相思林 >尾叶桉林 >马尾松林 >湿地松林。各林分凋落物的最大持水量为杉木林 17.9× 10 3 kg·hm-2, 马占相思林 14.8× 10 3 kg·hm-2, 尾叶桉林 14.0× 10 3 kg·hm-2, 马尾松林 10.6× 10 3 kg·hm-2, 湿地松林 9.8× 10 3 kg·hm-2 。尾叶桉林、杉木林、马占相思林、湿地松林和马尾松林的凋落物最大持水率分别为 35 1%、2 74 %、2 6 9%、2 35 %和 191%。凋落物持水量和凋落物持水率随着浸泡时间的增加按照对数方程增加。 5种林分中尾叶桉林的凋落物吸水速率在各浸泡时间后居首位, 杉木林和马占相思林中等, 湿地松林较小, 而马尾松林最小, 各林分的凋落物的吸水速率随浸泡时间的增长按方程Y =a +b·t-1下降。     

鼎湖山主要森林植物凋落物分解及其对N沉降的响应

研究了鼎湖山森林主要植物凋落物分解及其对模拟 N沉降的响应。凋落物分解速率随林分、树种和分解阶段不同而异。分解试验 3个月后 ,季风常绿阔叶林、混交林和马尾松林分解物残存量占起始量的比例平均分别为 0 .5 0 ,0 .80和 0 .87,且它们的差异均达显著水平 (p<0 .0 5 ) ;6个月后 ,这 3种林分的分解物残存量占起始量的比例平均分别为 0 .4 1、0 .73和 0 .70。试验 3个月后 ,所有试验树种中凋落物分解最快的树种是季风常绿阔叶林的锥栗 (Castanopsis chinensis,残存量占起始量的比例为0 .34)最慢为马尾松林中的马尾松 (Pinus massoniana,残存量占起始量的比例为 0 .87) ;经 6个月后 ,最快的树种是季风常绿阔叶林的华润楠 (Machilus chinensis,残存量占起始量的比例为 0 .2 5 ) ,最慢为混交林中的马尾松 (残存量占起始量的比例为0 .75 )。 N沉降对凋落物分解的影响也随林分、树种和分解阶段不同而异。在马尾松林中 ,N沉降仅在试验开始 3个月对马尾松针叶凋落物分解存在明显的促进作用 (p<0 .0 5 )。在混交林中 ,经 6个月试验后 ,低 N处理对马尾松针叶凋落物分解仍无明显作用 ,中 N处理则明显促进其分解 (p<0 .0 5 ) ,但在两次取样中 N沉降处理对荷木 (Schima superba)凋落物的分解均无显著影响。 N沉降增     

井冈山森林凋落物分解动态及磷、钾释放速率

应用网袋分解法对井冈山地区亚热带常绿阔叶林、针阔叶混交林和高山矮林地上和地下(10 cm)2个分解组的叶凋落物进行了连续2年的分解试验,测定了凋落物的分解速率以及P、K元素的释放动态.结果表明: 3种林分叶凋落物残留率与时间呈负指数衰减关系.各林分凋落物干质量损失前期较快,第1年末两组平均质量损失率分别为50.6%(常绿阔叶林)、41.7%(针阔叶混交林)和40.13%(高山矮林),且地上组显著高于地下组;后期较慢,至第2年末2组平均质量损失率分别达到60.95%(常绿阔叶林)、57.06%(针阔叶混交林)和56.60%(高山矮林),均以常绿阔叶林、针阔叶混交林、高山矮林为序递减,地上组与地下组的差异不显著.根据Olson指数衰减模型对质量损失率结果进行拟合,发现3种林分样地上凋落物分解95%所需的时间(t_0.95)为6.8～9.9年,其大小排序为常绿阔叶林＜针阔叶混交林＜高山矮林.P在不同林分凋落物分解过程中均存在明显的净固持效应,其强度顺序为高山矮林＞针阔叶混交林＞常绿阔叶林,凋落物初始P含量和C/P可能是导致上述情形的原因.K在各林分的多数时间均表现为净释放.以试验末期的元素释放量计算,P的释放速率在地上组和地下组之间无显著差异,而K则为地上组显著高于地下组.     

井冈山森林凋落物分解动态及磷、钾释放速率

应用网袋分解法对井冈山地区亚热带常绿阔叶林、针阔叶混交林和高山矮林地上和地下(10 cm)2个分解组的叶凋落物进行了连续2年的分解试验,测定了凋落物的分解速率以及P、K元素的释放动态.结果表明: 3种林分叶凋落物残留率与时间呈负指数衰减关系.各林分凋落物干质量损失前期较快,第1年末两组平均质量损失率分别为50.6%(常绿阔叶林)、41.7%(针阔叶混交林)和40.13%(高山矮林),且地上组显著高于地下组;后期较慢,至第2年末2组平均质量损失率分别达到60.95%(常绿阔叶林)、57.06%(针阔叶混交林)和56.60%(高山矮林),均以常绿阔叶林、针阔叶混交林、高山矮林为序递减,地上组与地下组的差异不显著.根据Olson指数衰减模型对质量损失率结果进行拟合,发现3种林分样地上凋落物分解95%所需的时间(t_0.95)为6.8～9.9年,其大小排序为常绿阔叶林＜针阔叶混交林＜高山矮林.P在不同林分凋落物分解过程中均存在明显的净固持效应,其强度顺序为高山矮林＞针阔叶混交林＞常绿阔叶林,凋落物初始P含量和C/P可能是导致上述情形的原因.K在各林分的多数时间均表现为净释放.以试验末期的元素释放量计算,P的释放速率在地上组和地下组之间无显著差异,而K则为地上组显著高于地下组.     

中亚热带4种森林凋落物量、组成、动态及其周转期

为研究亚热带次生林保护对森林生态系统养分循环等功能过程的影响。采用凋落物直接收集法,比较湘中丘陵区3种次生林(马尾松+石栎针阔混交林、南酸枣落叶阔叶林、石栎+青冈常绿阔叶林)和杉木人工林的凋落物量、组成特征及其周转期。结果表明:4种林分年凋落物量在414.4—818.2 g m-2a-1之间,3种次生林显著高于杉木人工林,3种次生林两两之间差异不显著,落叶对林分凋落物量的贡献最大,占林分凋落物量的59.9%—66.6%。杉木人工林和南酸枣落叶阔叶林的凋落物量月动态变化呈"双峰型",马尾松+石栎针阔混交林、石栎+青冈常绿阔叶林呈"不规则型"。优势树种的凋落物量对其林分凋落物量的贡献随林分树种多样性的增加而下降,杉木、马尾松凋落物量的月动态与其林分凋落物量的月动态基本呈一致变化趋势,但南酸枣、青冈、石栎没有一致的变化趋势。杉木人工林凋落物分解率最低(0.31),周转期最长(3.2 a),南酸枣落叶阔叶林分解率最高(0.45),周转期最低(2.2 a),凋落物的分解速率和周转随林分树种多样性增加而加快。可见,次生林凋落物量大,且分解快,周转期短,有利于养分归还和具有良好地力维持的能力。     

乔木根系和凋落物对南亚热带3种人工林土壤线虫群落的差异化影响

根系分泌物和凋落物为土壤食物网提供了基础的养分资源。然而,不同树种纯林和混交林地下根系和地上凋落物对土壤线虫群落的影响机制尚不清楚。2019年9月在广西凭祥热带林业实验中心选取格木(Erythrophleum fordii Oliv.)纯林、马尾松(Pinus massoniana Lamb.)纯林和格木×马尾松混交林3种林分类型,分别设置对照、阻断乔木根系、去除地上凋落物和阻断乔木根系并去除地上凋落物四组实验处理,于2021年3月对3种林分类型不同处理下的土壤线虫群落和土壤理化性质进行了调查。研究结果表明,无论哪种林分类型,阻断根系改变了土壤线虫群落的营养类群组成,显著降低了食真菌线虫相对多度,增加了植物寄生线虫相对多度;去除凋落物显著降低了土壤线虫密度、类群数、线虫通路比值和结构指数,增加了基础指数,表明去除凋落物降低了土壤食物网的稳定性。无论哪种林分类型,人工林中树木地下根系输入是构建土壤线虫群落营养类群组成的主要驱动因素,地上凋落物在维持土壤食物网稳定性方面发挥着重要的作用。此外,阻断根系和去除凋落物对混交林中土壤线虫群落没有显著的影响,表明含固氮树种的格木×马尾松混交林比人工...     

青羊湖林场不同林分物种多样性与水源涵养能力的研究

通过群落调查和林下土壤及枯落物特性的分析,研究了青羊湖林场南酸枣（Choerospondias axillaris）林、未抚育马尾松（Pinus massoniana）林、抚育马尾松林、马尾松-南酸枣混交林4种林分的物种多样性及水源涵养能力。结果表明：（1）4种林分共有维管束植物135种,隶属58科97属,其中南酸枣林物种相对较丰富(88种),混交林次之(76种),抚育马尾松林较少(64种),未抚育马尾松林则相对最少(55种);（2）林分类型对物种多样性有重要影响,南酸枣林和混交林草本物种多样性较两种针叶林高,而灌木物种多样性则较低;（3）DCA排序结果显示,南酸枣林和混交林物种相似性程度较高,两种马尾松林与南酸枣林、混交林差异明显;（4）林分类型对水源涵养能力有重要影响,相比两种马尾松林,南酸枣林和混交林的林下枯落物蓄积量分别降低10.1%和15.2%,最大持水量降低34.1%和44.7%,而且0～10 cm土壤容重降低14.7%和7.4%,10～20 cm土壤容重降低14.1%和4.0%,20～30 cm土壤容重降低8.7%和4.9%,但总储水量增加15.8%和4.5%,即南酸枣林和混交林具有较高的水源涵养能力。研究认为,生态抚育增加了马尾松林的水源涵养能力。     

长江三峡地区退化生态系统土壤微生物的初步研究*

通过对长江三峡地区4种退化生态系统类型,每一类型5个土壤样品中微生物的初步研究, 结果表明该地区土壤每克干土中真菌和细菌的数量分别为 8.62×10⁴ ～1.31×10⁵ cfu 及 1.547×10⁷～6.957×10⁷ cfu, 但不同退化生态系统类型下土壤微生物的数量有所不同,其中单位重量土壤真菌数量 (cfu/g)多少顺序为：栓皮栎林(Quercus variabilis forest)＞马尾松林( Pinus massoniana forest)＞马尾松-栓皮栎混交林( Pinus massoniana-Quercus variabilis forest)＞杉木林( Cunninghamia lanceolata forest),细菌数量顺序为：马尾松-栓皮栎混交林( Pinus massoniana-Quercus variabilis forest)＞栓皮栎林( Quercus　variabilis forest)＞马尾松林( Pinus massoniana forest)＞杉木林( Cunninghamia lanceolata forest)。真菌种类鉴定表明,青霉菌(Penicillium ssp.)、镰刀菌(Fusarium spp.)、木霉菌(Trihoderma spp.)和葡萄孢菌(Botrytis spp.)等是组成该地区土壤真菌的主要类群。     

模拟N沉降下不同林龄马尾松林凋落叶分解-土壤C、N化学计量特征

模拟N沉降对森林生态系统的影响是当今全球变化生态学研究的一个热点问题,土壤碳库对N沉降比较敏感,N沉降增加了凋落叶分解过程中外源N含量,间接影响凋落叶分解的化学过程并改变凋落叶分解速率,因此,研究模拟N沉降下凋落叶分解-土壤C-N关系对预测森林C吸存有重要意义。利用原位分解袋法研究了模拟N沉降下三峡库区不同林龄马尾松林(Pinus massoniana)凋落叶分解过程中凋落叶-土壤C、N化学计量响应及其关系;N沉降水平分对照(CK,0 g m~(-2)a~(-1))、低氮(LN,5 g m~(-2)a~(-1))、中氮(MN,10 g m~(-2)a~(-1))和高氮(HN,15 g m~(-2)a~(-1))。结果表明:分解540 d后,N沉降促进20年生和30年生马尾松林凋落叶分解,46年生马尾松林中仅低氮处理促进凋落叶分解,4种处理均是30年生分解最快,说明同一树种起始N含量低的凋落叶对N沉降呈正响应,N沉降处理促进起始N含量低的凋落叶分解,起始N含量高的凋落叶分解过程中易达到"N饱和"。N沉降抑制20年生和46年生凋落叶C释放(低于对照0.62%—6.69%),促进30年生C释放(高于对照0.28%—5.55%);30年生和46年生林分N固持量均高于对照(高于对照0.15%—21.34%),20年生则低于对照(5.70%—13.87%),说明模拟N沉降处理促进起始C含量低的凋落叶C释放和起始N含量低的凋落叶N固持。N沉降处理下仅30年生马尾松林土壤有机碳较对照增加,且土壤有机质与凋落叶C、N和分解速率呈正相关,与凋落叶C/N比呈显著负相关;土壤总氮与凋落叶分解速率、凋落叶N含量呈正相关,土壤有机碳/总氮比与凋落叶C、N含量呈正相关;对照处理中凋落叶分解指标对土壤养分影响顺序是分解速率凋落物C含量凋落物C/N比凋落物N含量,低、中、高氮处理中则是凋落物C含量分解速率凋落物N含量凋落物C/N比。研究表明低土壤养分含量马尾松林对N沉降呈正响应,N沉降促进低土壤养分马尾松林凋落叶分解并提高土壤肥力;凋落叶质量和土壤养分含量低的生态系统土壤C对N沉降响应更显著。     

壳聚糖酶的克隆表达与壳寡糖的制备分析

目的:克隆壳聚糖酶基因于大肠杆菌中实现高表达,制备壳寡糖。方法:以枯草芽孢杆菌总DNA为模板扩增壳聚糖酶基因(CSN),克隆至载体pET23a(+)上,转化菌株BL21(DE3)。重组子经0.5 mmol/L IPTG诱导后,SDS-PAGE和质谱检测与鉴定重组酶。酶纯化后水解壳聚糖,薄层色谱分析其水解产物。结果:质谱证明壳聚糖酶(31.5kDa)成功表达,表达量占菌体总蛋白的45%左右。纯化后重组酶浓度为900 mg/L,纯度95%、回收率85%,酶活力为10 000 U/mg。壳聚糖降解产物为壳二糖至壳四糖。结论:原核表达载体pET23a(+)-CSN构建正确,壳聚糖酶表达量与活性高,适用于水解壳聚糖制备壳寡糖。     

国内外蝗害治理技术现状与展望

本文首先概述了国内外蝗虫发生与为害的态势,总结了现阶段我国蝗虫发生与为害的主要特点:即农田飞蝗暴发频繁而且严重,草原土蝗的发生时常造成严重的经济损失,而且侵入城市干扰市民生活,我国与周边国家之间蝗虫过境迁移频繁,使用化学农药污染环境和农产品;分析了国内外蝗虫防治对策与技术的发展现状,重点介绍了应急防治和可持续治理对策、...     

Coiled-coil nanomechanics and uncoiling and unfolding of the superhelix and alpha-helices of myosin

The nanomechanical properties of the coiled-coils of myosin are fundamentally important in understanding muscle assembly and contraction. Force spectra of single molecules of double-headed myosin, single-headed myosin, and coiled-coil tail fragments were acquired with an atomic force microscope and displayed characteristic triphasic force-distance responses to stretch: a rise phase (R) and a plateau phase (P) and an exponential phase (E). The R and P phases arise mainly from the stretching of the coiled-coils, with the hinge region being the main contributor to the rise phase at low force. Only the E phase was analyzable by the worm-like chain model of polymer elasticity. Restrained molecular mechanics simulations on an existing x-ray structure of scallop S2 yielded force spectra with either two or three phases, depending on the mode of stretch. It revealed that coiled-coil chains separate completely near the end of the P phase and the stretching of the unfolded chains gives rise to the E phase. Extensive conformational searching yielded a P phase force near 40 pN that agreed well with the experimental value. We suggest that the flexible and elastic S2 region, particularly the hinge region, may undergo force-induced unfolding and extend reversibly during actomyosin powerstroke.     

放牧对牧草光合作用、呼吸作用和氮、碳吸收与转运的影响

研究放牧对草地植物生理活动的影响,对于揭示草地放牧演替的生理机制有重要意义.大量研究表明,家畜放牧对牧草光合作用、呼吸作用以及C和N吸收与转运的影响,可以分为生理伤害和生理恢复2个阶段.放牧通过改变草地冠层结构影响牧草光合作用,净光合作用速率短期内迅速下降,随着叶面积指数增加又逐渐上升,呼吸作用有相似的变化趋势.牧草放牧后再生长所需的C和N最初主要来自根系和留茬中的贮藏物质,此后随着牧草生长恢复逐渐由同化作用供给,C代谢与土壤N水平负相关.放牧后牧草生理活动变化与牧草遗传特性、种间竞争、家畜放牧特征、非生物环境等因素密切相关.     

Synthesis of hapten and conjugates of coumestrol and development of immunoassay

3-O-Carboxymethylcoumestrol was prepared as the hapten for immunoassay by a partial alkylation of coumestrol with ethyl chloroacetate in acetone alkalized with potassium carbonate. 3-O-Ethoxycarbonylmethylcoumestrol was separated by column chromatography and finally was hydrolyzed with formic acid. 1H and 13C NMR data (APT, COSY, HMQC, and HMBC) revealed that the reaction was regioselective, as 3-O-ethoxycarboxymethylcoumestrol was the only monosubstituted derivative. The hapten was then conjugated to bovine serum albumin and used for immunization of rabbits. A radioimmunoassay (RIA) system was established based on the polyclonal antiserum and a 125I-labeled hapten-tyrosine methyl ester conjugate as the radioligand. Parameters of the RIA: sensitivity: 12 pg per tube, 50% intercept: 140 pg per tube, working range: 20-4000 pg per tube. The cross-reactivity of a panel isoflavonoid and lignan phytoestrogens was either negligible (e.g. formononetin 0.07%; biochanin A 0.06%) or not detectable at all. The major immunoreactive peak in HPLC fractions from an alfalfa extract had the same retention time as coumestrol standard and represented 94.8% of the signal. The remaining 5.2% of immunoreactivity was distributed between five minor peaks. We conclude that after the validation for particular matrices, the method will be a useful tool for analysis of coumestrol, especially in low volume and low concentration samples.     

Kinetics and thermodynamics of peroxidase- and laccase-catalyzed oxidation of N-substituted phenothiazines and phenoxazines

N -substituted phenothiazines (PTs) and phenoxazines (POs) catalyzed by fungal Coprinus cinereus peroxidase and Polyporus pinsitus laccase were investigated at pH 4–10. In the case of peroxidase, an apparent bimolecular rate constant (expressed as k _cat/K _m) varied from 1 ×10⁷M⁻¹s⁻¹to 2.6×10⁸M⁻¹s⁻¹ at pH 7.0. The constants for PO oxidation were higher in comparison to PT. pH dependence revealed two or three ionizable groups with pK _a values of 4.9–5.7 and 7.7–9.7 that significantly affected the activity of peroxidase. Single-turnover experiments showed that the limiting step of PT oxidation was reduction of compound II and second-order rate constants were obtained which were consistent with the constants at steady-state conditions. Laccase-catalyzed PT and PO oxidation rates were lower; apparent bimolecular rate constants varied from 1.8×10⁵M⁻¹s⁻¹ to 2.0×10⁷M⁻¹s⁻¹ at pH 5.3. PO constants were higher in comparison to PT, as was the case with peroxidase. The dependence of the apparent bimolecular constants of compound II or copper type 1 reduction, in the case of peroxidase or laccase, respectively, was analyzed in the framework of the Marcus outer-sphere electron-transfer theory. Peroxidase-catalyzed reactions with PT, as well as PO, fitted the same hyperbolic dependence with a maximal oxidation rate of 1.6×10⁸M⁻¹s⁻¹ and a reorganization energy of 0.30 eV. The respective parameters for laccase were 5.0×10⁷M⁻¹s⁻¹ and 0.29 eV. Received: 20 September 1999 / Accepted: 24 February 2000     

白术同源四倍体的诱导和鉴定及其与二倍体过氧化物酶的比较

以白术（Atractylodes macrooephala Koidz.）二倍体组培苗为材料,对其四倍体诱导方法进行研究,共获得45个白术同源四倍体株系,为优良株系的选育提供了材料。此外,还分析比较了其中8个白术四倍体株系与二倍体的过氧化物酶同工酶（POD）的酶谱差异,发现四倍体各株系过氧化物酶同工酶谱比二倍体的均多了Rf0.310的谱带,且总过氧化物酶比活力也发生了很大改变,对探讨白术四倍体优良株系的生理生化机理具有一定的参考价值。     

Morphology and putative function of the colon and cloaca of marine and freshwater snakes

Among tetrapods, evidence for postrenal modification of the urine by the distal digestive tract (including the colon and cloaca) is highly variable. Birds and bladderless reptiles are of interest because the colon and cloaca represent the only sites from which water and ions can be reclaimed from the urine secreted by the kidney. For animals occupying desiccating environments (e.g., deserts and marine environments), postrenal modification of the urine may directly contribute to the maintenance of hypo‐osmotic body fluids. We compared the morphology and distribution of key proteins in the colon, cloaca, and urogenital ducts of watersnakes from marine (Nerodia clarkii clarkii) and freshwater (Nerodia fasciata) habitats. Specifically, we examined the epithelia of each tissue for evidence of mucus production by examining the distribution of mucopolysaccharides, and for evidence of water/ion regulation by examining the distribution of Na⁺/K⁺‐ATPase (NKA), Na⁺/K⁺/Cl^? cotransporter (NKCC), and aquaporin 3 (AQP3). NKCC localized to the basolateral epithelium of the colon, urodeal sphincter, and proctodeum, consistent with a role in secretion of Na⁺, Cl^?, and K⁺ from the tissue, but NKA was not detected in the colon or any compartment of the cloaca. Interestingly, NKA was detected in the basolateral epithelium of the ureters, suggesting the urothelium may play a role in active ion transport. AQP3 was detected in the ureters and coprodeal complex, consistent with a role in urinary and fecal dehydration or, potentially, in the production of the watery component of the mucus secreted by the coprodeal complex. Since no differences in general cloacal morphology, production of mucus, or the distribution of ion transporters/water channels were detected between the two species, cloacal osmoregulation may either be regulated by proteins not examined in this study or may not be responsible for the differential success of N. c. clarkii and N. fasciata in marine habitats. J. Morphol. 2011. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.