New Caledonia: A ‘ Hot Spot’ for Valuable Chemodiversity

The flora of New Caledonia encompasses more than 3000 plant species and almost 80% are endemic. New Caledonia is considered as a ‘hot spot’ for biodiversity. With the current global loss of biodiversity and the fact that several drugs and pesticides become obsolete, there is an urgent need to increase sampling and research on new natural products. In this context, we review the chemical knowledge available on New Caledonian native flora from economical perspectives. We expect that a better knowledge of the economic potential of plant chemistry will encourage the plantation of native plants for the development of a sustainable economy which will participate in the conservation of biodiversity. In the second part of this review, we focus on the results exposed in 60 scientific articles and describe the identification of 225 original compounds from basal angiosperms and eudicot rosids. We discuss the economic potential of plants and molecules from medicinal and industrial perspectives. This review also highlights several plants and groups, such as Amborella sp., Piperaceae, or Phyllanthaceae, that are unexplored in New Caledonia despite their high chemical interest. Those plants are considered to have priority in future chemical investigations.     

New Caledonia: A ‘Hot Spot’ for Valuable Chemodiversity. Part 1: Gymnosperms

The flora of New Caledonia encompasses more than 3,000 species and almost 80% of them are endemic. New Caledonia is considered as a ‘hot spot’ for biodiversity. With the current global loss of biodiversity, and the fact that several drugs and pesticides are becoming obsolete, there is an urgent need to increase sampling and research on new natural products. In this context, we review the chemical information available on New Caledonian native flora from economical perspectives. We expect that a better knowledge of the economic potential will encourage the plantation of native plants for the development of a sustainable economy which will participate in the conservation of biodiversity. In the first part of this review, we discuss the results reported in 18 scientific articles on the chemicals isolated from 23 endemic conifers of New Caledonia. Several bioactive and original products, such as neocallitropsene or libocedrins, have been isolated from these conifers. This review also highlights several groups, such as Podocarpus spp., that are unexplored in New Caledonia despite the fact that they have been described in other countries to contain a wide range of original bioactive compounds. Those plants are considered as priority for future chemical investigations.     

Evolution on a shaky piece of Gondwana: is local endemism recent in New Caledonia?

New Caledonia is well known as a hot spot of biodiversity whose origin as a land mass can be traced back to the Gondwanan supercontinent. The local flora and fauna, in addition to being remarkably rich and endemic, comprise many supposedly relictual groups. Does the New Caledonian biota date back to Gondwanan times, building up its richness and endemism over 100 Myr or does it result from recent diversifications after Tertiary geological catastrophic events? Here we use a molecular phylogenetic approach to answer this question with the study of the Neocaledonian cockroach genus Angustonicus belonging to the subfamily Tryonicinae from Australia and New Caledonia. Both geological and molecular dating show that the diversification of this group is less than two million years old, whatever the date of its origin itself. This dating is not consistent with hypotheses of Gondwanan richness and endemism in New Caledonian biota. In other terms, local richness and endemism at the specific level are not necessarily related to an old Gondwanan origin of the Neocaledonian groups. © The Willi Hennig Society 2005.     

Biogeographical affinities of the New Caledonian biota: a puzzle with 24 pieces

Aim The distributions of many New Caledonian taxa were reviewed in order to ascertain the main biogeographical connections with other areas. Location Global. Methods Panbiogeographical analysis. Results Twenty‐four areas of endemism (tracks) involving New Caledonia and different areas of Gondwana, Tethys and the central Pacific were retrieved. Most are supported by taxa of lower and higher plants, and lower and higher animals. Main conclusions Although parts of New Caledonia were attached to Gondwana for some time in the mid‐Cretaceous, most of the New Caledonian terranes formed as oceanic island arcs and sections of sea floor bearing seamounts. The flora and fauna have evolved and survived for tens of millions of years as metapopulations on ephemeral islands. Later, the biotas were juxtaposed and fused during terrane accretion. This process, together with the rifting of Gondwana, explains the biogeographical affinities of New Caledonia with parts of Gondwana, Tethys and the Pacific.     

First record of the Australian guava moth Coscinoptycha improbana Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Carposinidae) in New Caledonia: Implication for quarantine and biosecurity surveys in insular territories

We recorded the Australian guava moth for the first time in New Caledonia. Given its biology and recent spread into New Zealand, this moth may be a pest risk for many fruit crops and native plant species if it is proved to have been introduced in New Caledonia. Indeed, this record challenges our capabilities to identify insect interceptions in the context of a high gap of taxonomic knowledge in New Caledonia. It also urges high endemism islands to implement early detection protocols to prevent establishment and spread of new invasive species.     

Time and tempo of diversification in the flora of New Caledonia

New Caledonia is well known for its rich and unique flora. Many studies have focused on the biogeographical origins of New Caledonian plants but rates of diversification on the island have scarcely been investigated. Here, dated phylogenetic trees from selected published studies were used to evaluate the time and tempo of diversification in New Caledonia. The 12 plant lineages investigated all appear to have colonized the island < 37 Mya, when New Caledonia re‐emerged after a period of inundation, and the timing of these arrivals is spread across the second half of the Cenozoic. Diversification rates are not particularly high and are negatively correlated with lineage age. The palms have the fastest diversification rates and also the most recent arrival times. The lineage ages of rainforest plants suggest that this ecosystem has been present for at least 6.9 Myr. The New Caledonian flora is apparently a relatively old community that may have reached a dynamic equilibrium. Colonization by new immigrants has been possible until relatively recently and diversity‐dependent processes may still be affecting the diversification rates of the earlier colonizers. Further studies on the diversification of large plant clades with exhaustive sampling should help to clarify this. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 170 , 288–298.     

Recent advances in New Caledonian biogeography

The biota of New Caledonia is one of the most unusual in the world. It displays high diversity and endemism, many peculiar absences, and far‐flung biogeographic affinities. For example, New Caledonia is the only place on Earth with both main clades of flowering plants – the endemic Amborella and ‘all the rest’, and it also has the highest concentration of diversity in conifers. The discovery of Amborella's phylogenetic position led to a surge of interest in New Caledonian biogeography, and new studies are appearing at a rapid rate. This paper reviews work on the topic (mainly molecular studies) published since 2013. One current debate is focused on whether any biota survived the marine transgressions of the Paleocene and Eocene. Total submersion would imply that the entire fauna was derived by long‐distance dispersal from continental areas since the Eocene, but only if no other islands (now submerged) were emergent. A review of the literature suggests there is little actual evidence in geology for complete submersion. An alternative explanation for New Caledonia's diversity is that the archipelago acted as a refugium, and that the biota avoided the extinctions that occurred in Australia. However, this is contradicted by the many groups that are anomalously absent or depauperate in New Caledonia, although represented there by a sister group. The anomalous absences, together with the unusual levels of endemism, can both be explained by vicariance at breaks in and around New Caledonia. New Caledonia has always been situated at or near a plate boundary, and its complex geological history includes the addition of new terranes (by accretion), orogeny, and rifting. New Caledonia comprises ‘basement’ terranes that were part of Gondwana, as well as island arc and forearc terranes that accreted to the basement after it separated from Gondwana. The regional tectonic history helps explain the regional biogeography, as well as distribution patterns within New Caledonia. These include endemics on the basement terranes (for example, the basal angiosperm, Amborella), disjunctions at the West Caledonian fault zone, and great biotic differences between Grande Terre and the Loyalty Islands.     

Conservation challenges in a threatened hotspot: agriculture and plant biodiversity losses in Baja California,Mexico

Modern agricultural practices pose serious threats to biodiversity worldwide. Species losses from habitat conversion are well documented, but indirect impacts such as reduced water availability to adjacent ecosystems are less known. San Quintín is an important agricultural valley in the mediterranean climate region of Baja California, Mexico. The region is also a hotspot of plant species richness and endemism. Plant species in the region are here analyzed by comparison of the contemporary flora to historical botanical collections to identify extirpations. Historical collections indicate that habitat loss to agriculture has been a direct cause of species losses. As importantly, the unsustainable extraction of groundwater has apparently led to salt water intrusion, resulting in the loss of 22 native plant taxa, including 13 rare plants. Seventy-eight percent of all the vernal pool taxa have been lost from the flora (including 85 % of the rare taxa) and 11 % of plants of riparian and pond habitat (including 25 % of the rare taxa) are no longer found in the region. Unsustainable agricultural practices continue to threaten fragile coastal ecosystems and are a serious challenge to current and future conservation efforts. Ironically, these same practices frequently result in abandonment of cultivated areas. Owing to indirect impacts, conservation of biodiversity and large-scale agricultural operations are even less compatible on a regional scale than indicated by direct impacts. It is vital that sustainable agricultural practices be adopted locally and globally to avoid further losses of biodiversity.     

AFLP markers provide insights into the evolutionary relationships and diversification of New Caledonian Araucaria species (Araucariaceae)

? Premise of the study: Despite its small size, New Caledonia is characterized by a very diverse flora and striking environmental gradients, which make it an ideal setting to study species diversification. Thirteen of the 19 Araucaria species are endemic to the territory and form a monophyletic group, but patterns and processes that lead to such a high species richness are largely unexplored. ? Methods: We used 142 polymorphic AFLP markers and performed analyses based on Bayesian clustering algorithms, genetic distances, and cladistics on 71 samples representing all New Caledonian Araucaria species. We examined correlations between the inferred evolutionary relationships and shared morphological, ecological, or geographic parameters among species, to investigate evolutionary processes that may have driven speciation. ? Key results: We showed that genetic divergence among the present New Caledonian Araucaria species is low, suggesting recent diversification rather than pre-existence on Gondwana. We identified three genetic groups that included small-leaved, large-leaved, and coastal species, but detected no association with soil preference, ecological habitat, or rainfall. The observed patterns suggested that speciation events resulted from both differential adaptation and vicariance. Last, we hypothesize that speciation is ongoing and/or there are cryptic species in some genetically (sometimes also morphologically) divergent populations. ? Conclusions: Further data are required to provide better resolution and understanding of the diversification of New Caledonian Araucaria species. Nevertheless, our study allowed insights into their evolutionary relationships and provides a framework for future investigations on the evolution of this emblematic group of plants in one of the world's biodiversity hotspots.     

Wildfire risk for main vegetation units in a biodiversity hotspot: modeling approach in New Caledonia,South Pacific

Wildfire has been recognized as one of the most ubiquitous disturbance agents to impact on natural environments. In this study, our main objective was to propose a modeling approach to investigate the potential impact of wildfire on biodiversity. The method is illustrated with an application example in New Caledonia where conservation and sustainable biodiversity management represent an important challenge. Firstly, a biodiversity loss index, including the diversity and the vulnerability indexes, was calculated for every vegetation unit in New Caledonia and mapped according to its distribution over the New Caledonian mainland. Then, based on spatially explicit fire behavior simulations (using the FLAMMAP software) and fire ignition probabilities, two original fire risk assessment approaches were proposed: a one‐off event model and a multi‐event burn probability model. The spatial distribution of fire risk across New Caledonia was similar for both indices with very small localized spots having high risk. The patterns relating to highest risk are all located around the remaining sclerophyll forest fragments and are representing 0.012% of the mainland surface. A small part of maquis and areas adjacent to dense humid forest on ultramafic substrates should also be monitored. Vegetation interfaces between secondary and primary units displayed high risk and should represent priority zones for fire effects mitigation. Low fire ignition probability in anthropogenic‐free areas decreases drastically the risk. A one‐off event associated risk allowed localizing of the most likely ignition areas with potential for extensive damage. Emergency actions could aim limiting specific fire spread known to have high impact or consist of on targeting high risk areas to limit one‐off fire ignitions. Spatially explicit information on burning probability is necessary for setting strategic fire and fuel management planning. Both risk indices provide clues to preserve New Caledonia hot spot of biodiversity facing wildfires.     

The Evolving Role of Botanical Gardens and Natural Areas:A Floristic Case Study from Royal Botanical Gardens,Canada

As leaders calling for the conservation of the world’s plants,botanical gardens protect plants within living collections.Many also study,manage and restore plants in natural habitats.Royal Botanical Gardens(Ontario,Canada) has integrated both horticultural and natural heritage in its mission for decades.Envisioned by municipal leaders in the 1920s as a combination of nature sanctuaries and civic gardens,RBG now includes forests,wetlands and other habitats,gardens and built spaces.Today RBG is Canada’s largest botanical garden on the basis of area.In the 1950s RBG began to inventory plant diversity.The checklist of spontaneous vascular plants now exceeds 1 170 species,of which 752 are native.This is 37% of Ontario’s native vascular plants and 19% of the native vascular flora of Canada.The RBG nature sanctuaries are among the richest locations in Canada for species-level diversity.We examine the history of floristic exploration within RBG and compare plant species-area relationships among protected natural areas in Ontario.This comparison supports the contention that the nature sanctuaries,and in particular Cootes Paradise,could be considered an important area for plants in Canada,and relative to the nation’s flora,a biodiversity hotspot.The fact that a candidate vascular plant hotspot for Canada lies within a major botanical garden presents opportunities for raising public awareness of the importance of plant diversity,as well as focusing attention on the scientific and conservation biology needs of communities and individual species in this area.     

The Evolving Role of Botanical Gardens and Natural Areas: A Floristic Case Study from Royal Botanical Gardens, Canada

As leaders calling for the conservation of the world's plants, botanical gardens protect plants within living collections. Many also study, manage and restore plants in natural habitats. Royal Botanical Gardens (Ontario,Canada) has integrated both horticultural and natural heritage in its mission for decades. Envisioned by municipal leaders in the 1920s as a combination of nature sanctuaries and civic gardens, RBG now includes forests, wetlands and other habitats, gardens and built spaces. Today RBG is Canada's largest botanical garden on the basis of area.In the 1950s RBG began to inventory plant diversity. The checklist of spontaneous vascular plants now exceeds 1 170 species, of which 752 are native. This is 37% of Ontario's native vascular plants and 19% of the native vascular flora of Canada. The RBG nature sanctuaries are among the richest locations in Canada for species-level diversity.We examine the history of fioristic exploration within RBG and compare plant species-area relationships among protected natural areas in Ontario. This comparison supports the contention that the nature sanctuaries, and in particular Cootes Paradise, could be considered an important area for plants in Canada, and relative to the nation's flora, a biodiversity hotspot. The fact that a candidate vascular plant hotspot for Canada lies within a major botanical garden presents opportunities for raising public awareness of the importance of plant diversity, as well as focusing attention on the scientific and conservation biology needs of communities and individual species in this area.     

Panbiogeography of New Caledonia,south‐west Pacific: basal angiosperms on basement terranes,ultramafic endemics inherited from volcanic island arcs and old taxa endemic to young islands

Aim To investigate areas of endemism in New Caledonia and their relationship with tectonic history. Location New Caledonia, south‐west Pacific. Methods Panbiogeographical analysis. Results Biogeographical patterns within New Caledonia are described and illustrated with reference to eight terranes and ten centres of endemism. The basement terranes make up a centre of endemism for taxa including Amborella, the basal angiosperm. Three of the terranes that accreted to the basement in the Eocene (high‐pressure metamorphic terrane, ultramafic nappe and Loyalty Ridge) have their own endemics. Main conclusions New Caledonia is not simply a fragment of Gondwana but, like New Zealand and New Guinea, is a complex mosaic of allochthonous terranes. The four New Caledonian basement terranes were all formed from island arc‐derived and arc‐associated material (including ophiolites) which accumulated in the pre‐Pacific Ocean, not in Gondwana. They amalgamated and were accreted to Gondwana (eastern Australia) in the Late Jurassic/Early Cretaceous, but in the Late Cretaceous they separated from Australia with the opening of the Tasman Sea and break‐up of Gondwana. An Eocene collision of the basement terranes with an island arc to the north‐east – possibly the Loyalty Ridge – is of special biogeographical interest in connection with New Caledonia–central Pacific affinities. The Loyalty–Three Kings Ridge has had a separate history from that of the Norfolk Ridge/New Caledonia, although both now run in parallel between Vanuatu and New Zealand. The South Loyalty Basin opened between Grande Terre and the Loyalty Ridge in the Cretaceous and attained a width of 750 km. However, it was almost completely destroyed by subduction in the Eocene which brought the Loyalty Ridge and Grande Terre together again, after 30 Myr of separation. The tectonic history is reflected in the strong biogeographical differences between Grande Terre and the Loyalty Islands. Many Loyalty Islands taxa are widespread in the Pacific but do not occur on Grande Terre, and many Grande Terre/Australian groups are not on the Loyalty Islands. The Loyalty Islands are young (2 Myr old) but they are merely the currently emergent parts of the Loyalty Ridge whose ancestor arcs have a history of volcanism dating back to the Cretaceous. Old taxa endemic to the young Loyalty Ridge islands persist over geological time as a dynamic metapopulation surviving in situ on the individually ephemeral islands and atolls found around subduction zones. The current Loyalty Islands, like the Grande Terre terranes, have inherited their biota from previous islands. On Grande Terre, the ultramafic terrane was emplaced on Grande Terre in the Eocene (about the same time as the collision with the island arc). The very diverse endemic flora on the ultramafics may have been inherited by the obducting nappe from prior base‐rich habitat in the region, including the mafic Poya terrane and the limestones typical of arc and intraplate volcanic islands.     

Old Lineage on an Old Island: Pixibinthus,a New Cricket Genus Endemic to New Caledonia Shed Light on Gryllid Diversification in a Hotspot of Biodiversity

Few studies have focused on the early colonization of New Caledonia by insects, after the re-emergence of the main island, 37 Myr ago. Here we investigate the mode and tempo of evolution of a new endemic cricket genus, Pixibinthus, recently discovered in southern New Caledonia. First we formally describe this new monotypic genus found exclusively in the open shrubby vegetation on metalliferous soils, named ‘maquis minier’, unique to New Caledonia. We then reconstruct a dated molecular phylogeny based on five mitochondrial and four nuclear loci in order to establish relationships of Pixibinthus within Eneopterinae crickets. Pixibinthus is recovered as thesister clade of the endemic genus Agnotecous, mostly rainforest-dwellers. Dating results show that the island colonization by their common ancestor occurred around 34.7 Myr, shortly after New Caledonia re-emergence. Pixibinthus and Agnotecous are then one of the oldest insect lineages documented so far for New Caledonia. This discovery highlights for the first time two clear-cut ecological specializations between sister clades, as Agnotecous is mainly found in rainforests with 19 species, whereas Pixibinthus is found in open habitats with a single documented species. The preference of Pixibinthus for open habitats and of Agnotecous for forest habitats nicely fits an acoustic specialization, either explained by differences in body size or in acoustic properties of their respective habitats. We hypothesize that landscape dynamics, linked to major past climatic events and recent change in fire regimes are possible causes for both present-day low diversity and rarity in genus Pixibinthus. The unique evolutionary history of this old New Caledonian lineage stresses the importance to increase our knowledge on the faunal biodiversity of ‘maquis minier’, in order to better understand the origin and past dynamics of New Caledonian biota.     

Phylogenetic analysis of the endemic New Caledonian cockroach Lauraesilpha. Testing competing hypotheses of diversification

New Caledonia is a tropical hotspot of biodiversity with high rates of regional and local endemism. Despite offering an ideal setting to study the evolution of endemism, New Caledonia has received little attention compared with the other nearby hotspots, particularly New Zealand. Most studies of the Neocaledonian endemism have been carried out at the regional level, comparing the various groups and species present in New Caledonia but absent in neighboring territories. In addition, remarkably high short‐range endemism has been documented among plants, lizard and invertebrates, although these have usually been done, lacking a phylogenetic perspective. Most studies of Neocaledonian endemism have referred to the geological Gondwanan antiquity of the island and its metalliferous soils derived from ultramafic rocks. Very old clades are thought to have been maintained in refugia and diversified on the metalliferous soils. The present study documents the pattern of diversification and establishment of short‐range endemism in a phylogenetic context using the Neocaledonian cockroach genus Lauraesilpha. Mitochondrial and nuclear genes were sequenced to reconstruct phylogenetic relationships among the species of this genus. These relationships, in the light of the species distribution, do not support the hypothesis that species diversified via an adaptive radiation on metalliferous soils and are not consistent with areas of highest rainfall. Species of Lauraesilpha have similar altitudinal ranges and ecological habits and are short‐range endemics on mountains. What our analysis did reveal was that closely related species are found on nearby or contiguous mountains, and thus these formations probably played the key role establishing short‐range endemism (in association with recent climatic changes). © The Willi Hennig Society 2008.     

Rhyparida foaensis (Jolivet, Verma & Mille, 2007), comb. n. (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae) and implications for the colonization of New Caledonia

The study of external morphology of the New Caledonian leaf beetle Dematochroma foaensis Jolivet, Verma & Mille (Chrysomelidae, Eumolpinae, Colaspoidini) substantiates its new combination into the genus Rhyparida Baly (Chrysomelidae, Eumolpinae, Nodinini). The species is redescribed here to highlight characters important for suprageneric diagnosis. This is the second species of Nodinini found in New Caledonia, otherwise rich in species of Colaspoidini, raising questions about the paucity of Rhyparida and this tribe in New Caledonian fauna, when they are dominant in surrounding archipelagoes, and very rich in potential source areas such as Australia and New Guinea. Some alternative explanations for this pattern are advanced, serving as alternative hypotheses until our knowledge on the ecology of these species improves or supported phylogenetic scenarios become available for this group.     

城市生物多样性分布格局研究进展

城市生物多样性分布格局由自然生态环境和城市化过程所决定;其动态和机理与自然生态系统迥然不同.城市生物多样性为城市生态系统提供了诸多生态系统功能和服务,对改善城市环境、维持城市可持续发展有着重要的意义和作用.城市化过程深刻改变了城市的生物多样性分布格局,导致了诸如本地物种多样性降低、外来物种多样性增加、物种同质化等一系列问题.近年来,城市生物多样性受到学界高度关注,大量研究结果既回答了一些关键性问题,又提出了诸多新的论题和挑战.分析了当前城市生物多样性分布格局研究的若干热点问题,总结了影响城市生物多样性格局的主要因素,探讨了城市生物多样性格局研究方法的关键问题,指出了未来城市生物多样性研究的发展方向,特别强调了城市生物多样性的生态系统功能研究在未来城市生物多样性研究中的重要地位.     

Plant extinction in New Caledonia: protection of sclerophyll forests urgently needed

The sclerophyll forests which once extended over the lowlands of the west coast of New Caledonia are now reduced to small fragments representing about 2% (10 000 ha) of their original area. Much of the remaining forests are degraded. Threats to sclerophyll forests come from land clearance, grazing by cattle or deer, and fire. In sclerophyll forests, 223 endemic phanerogam species occur and 59 of these are specific to this forest type. Several of the 59 specific species are known only from a few plants at a single locality and are critically endangered. Pittosporum tanianum sp. nov. became extinct shortly after its discovery in 1988, and becomes the first documented plant extinction in New Caledonia. A further 15 species of New Caledonian plants, not recorded for several decades, are discussed, and it is concluded that between 4 and 9 of them may be extinct. The existing reserves containing sclerophyll forests are inadequate to protect the remaining biodiversity of the forests. Four immediate steps needed to protect sclerophyll forests are (i) restoration of Leprédour Island; (ii) purchase and restoration of selected privately owned forests; (iii) management of publicly owned forest near Népoui; and (iv) ex situ conservation of certain species.     

Threatened plants of New Caledonia: Is the system of protected areas adequate?

With 76% of its 3063 native species of flora endemic, the New Caledonia biodiversity hotspot has long been recognized as having a high potential for conservation. Under the new IUCN Red List categories, 25% of the endemic plants are at risk (Conservation Dependent, Vulnerable, Endangered, Critically Endangered), and five species are already extinct. A review of their distribution demonstrates that 83% of the threatened species do not occur at all in a conservation area, and only 11% have their conservation status improved by a protected area. The protected area network is geographically and floristically very unbalanced, with the rainforest and high altitude maquis in the south concentrating most of the conservation effort. Conversely, the middle and northern segments of the island, as well as all of the dry west coast, are left without adequate conservation area. Two vegetation types, the sclerophyll forest and the unique low/middle altitude maquis, are virtually totally unprotected. We conclude that the current network of protected areas needs to be considerably expanded, in terms of both geographical/floristic subregions within New Caledonia and vegetation type covered. With only 54% of the conservation area covered by strict mining restrictions, existing reserves need to have their conservation efficiency improved by a more vigorous enforcement of their status, and by extending mining bans to all of them.     

Plant-pollinator interactions in New Caledonia influenced by introduced honey bees

The flora of New Caledonia is characterized by remarkably high species diversity, high endemicity, and an unusual abundance of archaic plant taxa. To investigate community-level pollination mutualism in this endemic ecosystem, we observed flower visitors on 99 plant species in 42 families of various types of vegetation. Among the 95 native plant species, the most dominant pollination system was melittophily (bee-pollinated, 46.3%), followed by phalaenophily (moth-pollinated, 20.0%), ornithophily (bird-pollinated, 11.6%), cantharophily (beetle-pollinated, 8.4%), myophily (fly-pollinated, 3.2%), chiropterophily (bat-pollinated, 3.2%), and anemophily (wind-pollinated, 3.2%). The prevalence of ornithophily by honeyeaters shows an ecological link to pollination mutualism in Australia. The relative dominance of phalaenophily is unique to New Caledonia, and is proposed to be related to the low diversity of the original bee fauna and the absence of long-tongued bees. Although some archaic plants maintain archaic plant-pollinator interactions, e.g., Zygogynum pollinated by micropterigid moths, or Hedycarya pollinated by thrips and staphylinid beetles, the most dominant organism observed on flowers was the introduced honey bee, Apis mellifera. The plant species now visited by honey bees are thought to have originally been pollinated by native solitary short-tongued bees. Our data suggest that the unique systems of pollination mutualism in New Caledonia are now endangered by the establishment of highly invasive honey bees.