Abandonment of farmland and vegetation succession following the Eurasian plague pandemic of ad 1347–52

Aim This paper reviews the available documentary, archaeological and palaeoecological evidence for the abandonment of agricultural land and consequent regeneration of the forest in Europe after the Black Death. Location Western and northern Europe. Methods This review is the result of an exhaustive search of the historical, archaeological and palaeoecological literature for evidence indicating agricultural decline and forest regeneration in Eurasia during the 14th century. The available evidence for landscape change can be divided into two categories: (1) documentary and archaeological sources, and (2) palaeoecological reconstructions of past vegetation. In the past few years, several pollen diagrams from north‐west Europe have been reported with precise chronologies (decadal and even annual scale) showing the abandonment of farmland and consequent ecological change in the late medieval period. Results and main conclusions There is strong evidence of agricultural continuity at several sites in Western Europe at the time of the Black Death. The effects of the Black Death on the European rural landscape varied geographically, with major factors probably including the impact of the plague on the local population, and soil quality. At two sites in western and northern Ireland, the late medieval decline in cereal agriculture was probably a direct result of population reduction following the Black Death. In contrast, the decline in cereal production began at sites in Britain and France before the Black Death pandemic of ad 1347–52, and was probably due to the crisis in the agricultural economy, exacerbated by political instability and climate deterioration. Much of the abandoned arable land was probably exploited for grazing during the period between the decline in cereal farming and the Black Death. In the aftermath of the Black Death, grazing pressure was greatly reduced owing to reductions in the grazing animal population and a shortage of farmers. Vegetation succession on the abandoned grazing land resulted in increased cover of woody tree species, particularly Betula and Corylus, by the late 14th century. The cover of woodland was greatest at c.ad 1400, before forest clearance and agriculture increased in intensity.     

Sex differences in periodontal disease in catastrophic and attritional assemblages from medieval london

Periodontal disease is one of the most common chronic diseases in living populations, and most studies that have examined sex differences in periodontal disease have found higher frequencies in men compared to women. This study examines sex differences in periodontal disease in two cemeteries from medieval London: the East Smithfield cemetery (c. 1349–1350), an exclusively Black Death cemetery that represents catastrophic mortality (n = 161), and the St. Mary Graces cemetery (c. 1350–1538), a post‐Black Death attritional assemblage that represents normal medieval mortality (n = 100). The results reveal a significantly higher frequency of periodontal disease, independent of age, among males compared with females in St. Mary Graces, but no significant difference between the sexes in East Smithfield. The sex differences in the attritional assemblage might reflect heightened susceptibility to periodontal disease in the living population or sex differences in frailty. The differences in the sex patterns of periodontal disease between the two cemeteries might be the result of disproportionately negative effects of the Great Bovine Pestilence and consequent decreases in dairy availability on female oral health among victims of the Black Death. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Mortality Risk and Survival in the Aftermath of the Medieval Black Death

The medieval Black Death (c. 1347-1351) was one of the most devastating epidemics in human history. It killed tens of millions of Europeans, and recent analyses have shown that the disease targeted elderly adults and individuals who had been previously exposed to physiological stressors. Following the epidemic, there were improvements in standards of living, particularly in dietary quality for all socioeconomic strata. This study investigates whether the combination of the selective mortality of the Black Death and post-epidemic improvements in standards of living had detectable effects on survival and mortality in London. Samples are drawn from several pre- and post-Black Death London cemeteries. The pre-Black Death sample comes from the Guildhall Yard (n = 75) and St. Nicholas Shambles (n = 246) cemeteries, which date to the 11^th–12^th centuries, and from two phases within the St. Mary Spital cemetery, which date to between 1120-1300 (n = 143). The St. Mary Graces cemetery (n = 133) was in use from 1350–1538 and thus represents post-epidemic demographic conditions. By applying Kaplan-Meier analysis and the Gompertz hazard model to transition analysis age estimates, and controlling for changes in birth rates, this study examines differences in survivorship and mortality risk between the pre- and post-Black Death populations of London. The results indicate that there are significant differences in survival and mortality risk, but not birth rates, between the two time periods, which suggest improvements in health following the Black Death, despite repeated outbreaks of plague in the centuries after the Black Death.     

The effect of sex on risk of mortality during the Black Death in London,A.D. 1349–1350

The Black Death of 1347–1351 was one of the most devastating epidemics in human history, and though it is frequently assumed that the epidemic killed indiscriminately, recent research suggests that the disease was selective, at least with respect to frailty. The purpose of this study is to determine whether the Black Death was similarly selective with respect to biological sex—that is, did either sex face an elevated risk during the epidemic or were men and women at equal risk of dying? A sample of 298 victims of the Black Death, from the East Smithfield cemetery in London, is compared to a pre‐Black Death normal mortality sample of 194 individuals from two Danish urban cemeteries, St Mikkel Church (Viborg) and St Albani Church (Odense). To assess the effect of sex on risk of death, sex is modeled as a covariate affecting the Gompertz–Makeham model of adult mortality. The results suggest that sex did not strongly affect risk of death in either the normal mortality or Black Death samples. These results are important for improving our understanding of Black Death mortality patterns. This is essential for understanding the effects the Black Death had on European populations, and the methods used here can potentially be informatively applied to investigations of other episodes of epidemic diseases in past populations. Am J Phys Anthropol 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Sex differentials in frailty in medieval England

In most modern populations, there are sex differentials in morbidity and mortality that favor women. This study addresses whether such female advantages existed to any appreciable degree in medieval Europe. The analyses presented here examine whether men and women with osteological stress markers faced the same risks of death in medieval London. The sample used for this study comes from the East Smithfield Black Death cemetery in London. The benefit of using this cemetery is that most, if not all, individuals interred in East Smithfield died from the same cause within a very short period of time. This allows for the analysis of the differences between men and women in the risks of mortality associated with osteological stress markers without the potential confounding effects of different causes of death. A sample of 299 adults (173 males, 126 females) from the East Smithfield cemetery was analyzed. The results indicate that the excess mortality associated with several osteological stress markers was higher for men than for women. This suggests that in this medieval population, previous physiological stress increased the risk of death for men during the Black Death to a greater extent than was true for women. Alternatively, the results might indicate that the Black Death discriminated less strongly between women with and without pre‐existing health conditions than was true for men. These results are examined in light of previous analyses of East Smithfield and what is known about diet and sexually mediated access to resources in medieval England. Am J Phys Anthropol 143:285–297, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Black Death and the silver lining: Meaning,continuity, and revolutionary change in histories of medieval plague

The tension between the advocates of the Black Death as the herald of a new age, and those who see plague as proof of the resiliency of medieval mentalities, is rapidly dissolving. The conflict/resolution model, with its overtones of teleology, progress, and Naturphilosophie, is proving less useful to historians of epidemiology than one emphasizing continuity, gradual change, and the stoicism of the ordinary person. Historians of the plague are gravitating more and more to an intensive study of the local impact of the Black Death. Such local studies reveal diversity — in economic and demographic impact, in the availability of historical sources, and in the interpretation these sources allow. The Black Death still retains its silver lining, but even that is changing: from proof of the awesome power of nature to level mankind and transform history, to proof of humanity's ability to endure even the worst crisis, to rebuild, and to start again.     

不同非生物胁迫对麻疯树幼苗光合速率等生理指标的影响

对麻疯树(Jatropha curcas L.)幼苗在不同非生物胁迫下的净光合速率(Pn)和蒸腾速率(Tr)等生理指标的变化进行了研究。结果表明,在缺磷处理中,麻疯树叶片Pn保持在对照的90%左右,气孔导度(Gs)和胞间CO2浓度(Ci)在处理2 d后显著增加,Gs上升20%～40%,Ci升高4%～16%,Tr变化不大;处理17 d时,麻疯树的P含量下降55%～85%,而干重只下降3%。缺氮处理9 d时麻疯树叶片的Pn下降到最低,之后维持在对照的64%左右,Gs在处理2～7 d显著高出对照15%～57%,处理9～16 d恢复到对照水平,Ci从第2天开始上升,高出对照4%～24%,Tr变化不大;处理17 d时组织中N含量显著下降47%～78%,植株干重下降23%。盐胁迫处理5 d后,麻疯树叶片Pn降低到对照的54%,之后维持在对照的48%左右,Gs、Ci和Tr与Pn的变化一致,均呈下降趋势;处理17 d,叶柄和茎中P含量增加37%～54%,组织中K+/Na+下降87%～96%,植株干重下降18%。干旱胁迫处理6 d,叶片Pn快速下降至29%,Gs、Ci和Tr与Pn整体变化趋势一致;处理第7天,叶片细胞膜透性增加67%,停止浇水17 d后植株干重下降55%,同时叶片卷曲下垂,老叶脱落。麻疯树植株Pn在缺磷胁迫过程中最早达到相对稳定状态,其次为盐胁迫和缺氮胁迫。这说明麻疯树植株对缺磷环境具有良好的适应性,而对缺氮环境适应性相对较差;耐盐类型可能属于逃避盐害中的聚盐植物,适应干旱环境的机制属于御旱性类型。     

Development of a Soil-temperature Data Base on Meloidogyne arenaria for a Simulation Model

Models for the development rate and death rate of Meloidogyne arenaria relative to temperature and time were developed to improve the predictive performance of a computer simulator. About 74% of the eggs hatched fairly rapidly, whereas the remainder hatched at a lower rate and appeared to be uninfluenced by temperature shock and root exudates. Death rates of eggs were rapid at extremes of temperature (5 and 36 C) during the first week, because of sensitivity of younger eggs, and then declined and later increased gradually with time. Death rates varied little with time at optimum temperatures for survival.     

Plague mortality and demographic depression in later medieval England.

Both direct and indirect evidence implies that England experienced a lengthy period of stagnant or declining population during the later fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The Black Death of 1348-1349 had brought about profound changes in England''s agrarian economy, and this subsequent demographic depression is most commonly interpreted by historians as the result of plague mortality, recurring in severe outbreaks after the disease''s introduction into the country. This paper reviews the evidence and assumptions behind this interpretation, in light of recent research by historical demographers and epidemiologists into bubonic plague epidemics and general mortality crises during the post-medieval period.     

The Black Death in Hereford,England: A demographic analysis of the Cathedral 14th-century plague mass graves and associated parish cemetery

Objectives

This study explores the paleoepidemiology of the Black Death (1348–52 AD) mass graves from Hereford, England, via osteological analysis. Hereford plague mortality is evaluated in the local context of the medieval city and examined alongside other Black Death burials.

Methods

The Hereford Cathedral site includes mass graves relating to the Black Death and a 12th-16th century parish cemetery. In total, 177 adult skeletons were analyzed macroscopically: 73 from the mass graves and 104 from the parish cemetery. Skeletal age-at-death was assessed using transition analysis, and sex and stress markers were analyzed.

Results

The age-at-death distributions for the mass graves and parish cemetery were significantly different (p = 0.0496). Within the mass graves, young adults (15–24 years) were substantially over-represented, and mortality peaked at 25–34 years. From 35 years of age onwards, there was little variation in the mortality profiles for the mass graves and parish cemetery. Males and females had similar representation across burial types. Linear enamel hypoplasia was more prevalent within the mass graves (p = 0.0340) whereas cribra orbitalia and tibial periostitis were underrepresented.

Conclusions

Mortality within the Hereford mass graves peaked at a slightly older age than is seen within plague burials from London, but the overall profiles are similar. This demonstrates that young adults were disproportionately at risk of dying from plague compared with other age groups. Our findings regarding stress markers may indicate that enamel hypoplasia is more strongly associated with vulnerability to plague than cribra orbitalia or tibial periostitis.     

Seasonal changes in the chemical and gelling characteristics of agar from Gracilaria verrucosa collected in Turkey

The chemical and gelling properties of agar from G. verrucosa collected from Izmit bay in Turkey at different months of the year were studied. Purification of agar was performed by using amylase treatment and isopropyl alcohol precipitation. The phycocolloid content was between 24.0–43.0% of the algal dry weight and was maximum in summer collected algae. Relative total sulfate and 3,6-anhydrogalactose content in the agar were determined from the ratios of infrared spectroscopy band intensities at 1250/2920 cm^–1 and 930/2920 cm^–1, respectively. 3,6-anhydrogalactose and sulfate contents were the highest in agar from algae collected from June until November and January until July, respectively. The gel strength of native agar were the highest from in autumn collected algae and increased to about 1250 N m^–2 after alkali treatment. Thus, this study demonstrated that G. verrucosa from Turkey produces an agar with optimal chemical and gelling properties after alkali-treatment in fall and winter collected algae and may be used for industrial agar production.     

The biology of Placostylus ambagiosus (Pulmonata: Bulimulidae) in New Zealand: Part 2. Population changes,growth, mortality and life expectancy

The large land snail Placostylus ambagiosus (Pulmonata: Bulimulidae) was studied in northernmost New Zealand from 1988 to 2004. At Cape Maria van Diemen (CMvD), more juveniles than adults were found, although estimates showed adults as the most abundant. A cohort, hatched after rodent control commenced in 1990, began maturing in 1995, but 89% died by 1997 (partly through competition with garden snails, Cornu aspersum), before numbers partially recovered by 2003. At Surville Cliffs, adults were estimated to be more abundant than juveniles but few juveniles were observed. Numbers under 12 food plants fluctuated between 425 and 657. Many snails dispersed after horses (Equus caballus) partially defoliated their food plants but returned once these recovered. A translocated population increased after rodent control commenced in 1999, but declined when rodent control ceased in 2002. Another translocated population declined when rodents were present and never recovered even after rodent control commenced in 2002. Snails took 2.8–11.7 years to mature from half-grown juveniles depending on location. Estimated adult life expectancies were 5.2 years at CMvD and 10.0 years at Surville Cliffs. Small juvenile snails experienced the highest mortality, and snails that moved between food plants experienced increased mortality. These results are discussed in relation to conservation management.     

Relationship between root elongation rate and diameter and duration of growth of lateral roots of maize

The objective of this work was to describe the relationship between elongation rate and diameter of maize roots and to estimate the length and growth duration of lateral roots of maize. Diameters and elongation rates of roots were measuredin situ on plants grown 5 weeks in small rhizotrons under greenhouse conditions. At the end of the experimental period the roots were harvested and diameters of axile and lateral roots were measured. The frequency distribution of diameters of harvested roots was bimodal with a minimum at 0.6 mm; 97% of axile roots were larger than this value and 98% of the lateral roots were smaller. Root elongation per day increased as diameter increased but the slope of the relationship with lateral roots was about 2.5 times that with axile roots when separate linear regressions were fitted to the two populations. The length of lateral roots found on axillary roots between the base and about 30 cm from the apex was approximately 2.2 cm. All of the data was consistent with the hypothesis that the lateral roots grew for about 2.5 days and then ceased growing. The axillary roots continued to grow throughout the experimental period at a rate of about 3 cm day⁻¹. Contribution from the Department of Agronomy, New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853. Agronomy paper No. 1661. This research is part of the program of the Center for Root-Soil Research.     

Growth and turnover of microbial biomass during the decomposition of organic matter(Polygonum cuspidatum) in vitro

Air-dried fresh and dead specimens ofPolygonum cuspidatum were incubated for 250 days in the laboratory, and the growth and turnover of microbial biomass-C in the organic matter were studied. The biomass-C in the fresh leaf and fresh stem attained maximum levels on day 14 and day 7, respectively, and then settled down to stable levels. In the dead leaf and dead stem, increase in biomass-C ceased by day 4 and the biomass-C levels did not change thereafter. The turnover time of the biomass-C was estimated from the amount of biomass-C and the release rate of CO₂-C. The turnover was rapid in the early period of incubation. Then the turnover time became longer and after incubation for 70 days the values approached those in natural soils (longer than 16 days). During the incubation period, nitrogen was not mineralized in any organic matter. In the dead leaf and dead stem, asymbiotic nitrogen fixation activity increased after incubation for about 40 days and disappeared by the end of the incubation period, whereas nitrogen fixation was hardly detected in the fresh leaf and fresh stem.     

Validation of Inverse Seasonal Peak Mortality in Medieval Plagues,Including the Black Death,in Comparison to Modern Yersinia pestis-Variant Diseases

Background

Recent studies have noted myriad qualitative and quantitative inconsistencies between the medieval Black Death (and subsequent “plagues”) and modern empirical Y. pestis plague data, most of which is derived from the Indian and Chinese plague outbreaks of A.D. 1900±15 years. Previous works have noted apparent differences in seasonal mortality peaks during Black Death outbreaks versus peaks of bubonic and pneumonic plagues attributed to Y. pestis infection, but have not provided spatiotemporal statistical support. Our objective here was to validate individual observations of this seasonal discrepancy in peak mortality between historical epidemics and modern empirical data.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We compiled and aggregated multiple daily, weekly and monthly datasets of both Y. pestis plague epidemics and suspected Black Death epidemics to compare seasonal differences in mortality peaks at a monthly resolution. Statistical and time series analyses of the epidemic data indicate that a seasonal inversion in peak mortality does exist between known Y. pestis plague and suspected Black Death epidemics. We provide possible explanations for this seasonal inversion.

Conclusions/Significance

These results add further evidence of inconsistency between historical plagues, including the Black Death, and our current understanding of Y. pestis-variant disease. We expect that the line of inquiry into the disputed cause of the greatest recorded epidemic will continue to intensify. Given the rapid pace of environmental change in the modern world, it is crucial that we understand past lethal outbreaks as fully as possible in order to prepare for future deadly pandemics.     

Tree-ring growth shows that the significant population decline in Norway began decades before the Black Death

The Black Death (1349–1350 in Norway) is often cited as the cause of a severe population decline and building hiatus in the middle of the 14th century. This paper analyses this hypothesis by matching the Black Death with human and environmental impacts on tree-ring growth. The number of buildings dated by dendrochronology in Norway shows a dramatic decline several decades before the plague. In Norway, the building hiatus, which has parallels in several other places in Europe, dates from the late-13th century almost to the 16th century. The first dated houses built after the plague date from the 15th century and many of the logs have exceptionally wide tree rings compared to timber from other periods. Assuming the rapid growth was because of an open landscape, the trees are likely to have grown on infields of farms abandoned due to the 14th century population decline. Since many of these fast-growing trees germinated in the early-14th century and the number of dated buildings drops dramatically several decades before the plague, the Black Death can hardly be the only reason for the population decline in Norway and one plausible explanation is that some environmental impact occurred decades earlier. The dendroclimatological evidence of cold and wet summers in the years before the plague is suggestive, but historical sources also pinpoint famine due to crop failure. They also tell of farms being abandoned several decades before the plague and mention periods of heavy rainfall and famine in the early-14th century.     

The Hypersensitive Reaction in Tobacco Leaf Tissue infiltrated with Pseudomonas pisi 4. Scanning Electron Microscope Studies on fractured Leaf Tissue

Leaves of tobacco infiltrated with Pseudomonas pisi were fractured at various times during the course of the hypersensitive reaction to expose cell surfaces within the tissue and mesophyll cell contents. Scanning electron microscopy of cross-fractured mesophyll cells did not reveal any gross change in internal structure during the reaction induction period (0—2 h), but breakdown of tonoplast and collapse of chloroplasts commenced at about 5 h, during the latent period. Death of the mesophyll cells was followed by condensation of cell contents, and pronounced stretching of cell walls, due to desiccation and shrinkage.Between 0—6 h after infiltration, bacteria were largely confined to cell junctions, frequently within droplets. With collapse of the host cells and release of cell fluid, numbers of bacteria increased considerably (many dividing cells), and there was a shift of bacterial distribution to the whole mesophyll cell surface. The progressive desiccation that occurred between 10—20 h prevented further bacterial increase, but numbers of bacteria remained stable. Death of bacteria commenced at about 15 h, and was accompanied by the formation of numerous surface protrusions, which detached and deposited over the whole mesophyll surface.     

THE RELEASE OF GLYCOLATE BY A FRESHWATER DIATOM1

Navicula pelliculosa (Breb) Hilse grown on 2% CO₂ in air released glycolate when incubated in light in buffer pH 8.0 containing 10 mM bicarbonate. Excretion ceased about 90 min after transfer to air and no excretion was detected with air-grown cells. These results indicate that glycolate release in this alga, as in species of other algal phyla, is an artifact of growth on high concentrations of CO₂.     

Yersinia pestis: New Evidence for an Old Infection

The successful reconstruction of an ancient bacterial genome from archaeological material presents an important methodological advancement for infectious disease research. The reliability of evolutionary histories inferred by the incorporation of ancient data, however, are highly contingent upon the level of genetic diversity represented in modern genomic sequences that are publicly accessible, and the paucity of available complete genomes restricts the level of phylogenetic resolution that can be obtained. Here we add to our original analysis of the Yersinia pestis strain implicated in the Black Death by consolidating our dataset for 18 modern genomes with single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) data for an additional 289 strains at over 600 positions. The inclusion of this additional data reveals a cluster of Y. pestis strains that diverge at a time significantly in advance of the Black Death, with divergence dates roughly coincident with the Plague of Justinian (6^th to 8^th century AD). In addition, the analysis reveals further clues regarding potential radiation events that occurred immediately preceding the Black Death, and the legacy it may have left in modern Y. pestis populations. This work reiterates the need for more publicly available complete genomes, both modern and ancient, to achieve an accurate understanding of the history of this bacterium.     

Synthesis of characteristic proteins in nutrient-depleted cell suspension cultures of parsley

Cell suspension cultures of parsley (Petroselinum crispum) exhibited an altered pattern of protein synthesis after transfer from complete growth medium to water or medium containing no macronutrients. Similar changes occurred when cultures were grown in the original medium until the nutrients were depleted. The effect was reversible upon transfer to fresh medium and was not observed during regular subculturing of the cells. While total protein synthesis decreased sharply after nutrient depletion, the synthesis of a few characteristic proteins (starvation-related proteins, STPs) increased strongly. The protein labeled at highest rates with [³⁵S]methionine in vivo (STP 62) had an apparent molecular weight of about 62000 and a pI of about 6.3. Although its increased rate of synthesis was therefore easily detected by labeling in vivo, translation of mRNA in vitro did not give comparable results. Thus, regulatory control may be exerted mainly at the level of translation. Synthesis of STP ceased rapidly when heat shock (37° C) was applied under conditions of nutrient depletion, whereas heat-shock proteins were strongly induced.Abbreviations HSP heat-shock protein - STP starvation-related protein