The influence of environmental change on the behaviour of sheltered dogs

The majority of sheltered dogs are overlooked for purchase because they are considered undesirable by potential buyers. Many factors may determine a dog's appeal, although of interest here are the dog's behaviour and cage environment which can influence its desirability. People prefer dogs which are at the front rather than the back of the cage, quiet as opposed to barking, and alert rather than non-alert. Potential buyers also prefer dogs which are held in complex as opposed to barren environments. This study examined the behaviour of sheltered dogs in response to environmental change, to determine whether it influenced dog behaviour in ways that could be perceived as desirable to potential dog buyers, and/or had any effect upon the incidence of dogs purchased from the shelter. One hundred and twenty dogs sheltered by the Ulster Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals were studied over a 4-h period. The dogs' position in the cage, vocalisation, and activity were investigated in response to increased human social stimulation, moving the dog's bed to the front of the cage, or suspending a toy from the front of the dog's cage. Social stimulation resulted in dogs spending more time at the front of the enclosure, more time standing, and slightly more time barking. Moving the bed to the front of the cage encouraged dogs to this position, but did not influence activity or vocalisation. Suspending a toy at the front of the pen exerted no effect on dog behaviour, although its presence in the pen may help to promote more positive perceptions of dog desirability. The incidence of dogs purchased from the rescue shelter increased whenever the dogs' cages were fitted with a bed at the front of the pen, whenever the dogs were subjected to increased regular human contact, and whenever a toy was placed at the front of the enclosure. Findings highlight the important role that cage environment can play in shaping the behaviour of sheltered dogs and influencing whether or not an animal will become purchased.     

Linking Biodiversity,the Environment and Ecosystem Functioning: Ecological Functions of Dung Beetles Along a Tropical Elevational Gradient

Biodiversity loss and anthropogenic environmental changes are known to impact ecosystem functions and services. However, there are still some uncertainties such as confounding environmental factors other than community attributes that affect ecosystem functioning. Our goal was to understand what factors influence the performance of Scarabaeinae dung beetle functions, testing the hypothesis that both community attributes and environmental variables influence the performance. Toward this aim, we collected dung beetles along an elevational gradient (800–1400 m a.s.l.) in the Espinhaço mountain range (Brazil) and quantified dung beetle functions, that is, dung removal, soil excavation and secondary seed dispersal. We recorded data on environmental factors related to climate, soil and vegetation and evaluated their effects on dung beetle functions. Dung beetle ecological functions declined with elevation and the decrease was more pronounced than richness, indicating that there are other factors involved in functions performance besides diversity of beetles. Indeed, we found that the ecological functions measured were dependent on both dung beetle community attributes and environmental factors. Climate, soil and vegetation influenced dung beetle function performance as much as richness, abundance and body size. Dung beetle functional diversity did not explain any of the functions measured. Our study demonstrates that ecological functions are directly influenced by both community attributes and environmental variables and confirms the link between biodiversity, environment and ecosystem functioning.     

Spatial synchrony of recruitment in mountain-dwelling woodland caribou

Spatial synchrony in population dynamics is a ubiquitous feature across a range of taxa. Understanding factors influencing this synchrony may shed light on important drivers of population dynamics. Three mechanisms influence the degree of spatial synchrony between populations: dispersal, shared predators, and spatial environmental covariance (the Moran effect). We assessed demographic spatial synchrony in recruitment (calf:cow ratio) of 10 northern mountain caribou herds in the Yukon Territory, Canada (1982–2008). Shared predators and dispersal were ruled out as causal mechanisms of spatial recruitment synchrony in these herds and therefore any spatial synchrony should be due to the Moran effect. We also assessed the degree of spatial synchrony in April snow depth to represent environmental variability. The regional average spatial synchrony in detrended residuals of April snow depth was 0.46 (95% CI 0.37 to 0.55). Spatial synchrony in caribou recruitment was weak at 0.13 (95% CI −0.06 to 0.32). The spatial scale of synchrony in April snow depth and caribou recruitment was 330.2 km (95% CI 236.3 to 370.0 km) and 170.0 km (95% CI 69.5 to 282.8 km), respectively. We also investigated how the similarity in terrain features between herds influenced the degree of spatial synchrony using exponential decay models. Only the difference in elevation variability between herds during calving was supported by the data. Herds with more similar elevation variability may track snowmelt ablation patterns in a more similar fashion, which would subsequently result in more synchronized predation rates on calves and/or nutritional effects impacting juvenile survival. Interspecific interactions with predators and alternate prey may also influence spatial synchrony of recruitment in these herds.     

Effects of Heritability,Shared Environment,and Nonshared Intrauterine Conditions on Child and Adolescent BMI

Heritability studies of BMI, based upon twin samples, have identified genetic and shared environmental components of BMI, but have been largely silent about the nonshared environmental factors. Intrauterine factors have been identified as having significant long‐term effects on BMI and may be a critical source of nonshared environmental influence. Extant studies based on samples of either unrelated individuals or twins cannot separate the effects of genetics, shared environments, and nonshared intrauterine conditions because the one lacks variation in the degree of relatedness and the other has insufficient variation in intrauterine conditions. This study improves upon these prior studies by using a large, sibling‐based sample to examine heritability, shared environmental, and nonshared intrauterine influences on BMI during two age periods in childhood (6–8 years; 12–14 years). The primary interest was in determining the effects of the intrauterine environment on BMI as a component of the nonshared environment and in determining whether there were sex‐specific differences in heritability and/or in the intrauterine factors. These were estimated using regression‐based techniques introduced by DeFries and Fulker. Heritability of BMI was estimated to be 0.20–0.28 at 6–8 years and 0.46–0.61 at 12–14 years. Differences in heritability were found at 12–14 years between same‐sex as compared to mixed‐sex pairs. The shared environmental effect was significant at 6–8 years but insignificant at 12–14 years. Differences in birth weight were significant in all groups at 6–8 years suggesting long‐term effects of the nonshared intrauterine environment; at 12–14 years, birth weight was no longer significant for girls.     

Housing of Pregnant Sows in Loose and Confined Systems–a Field Study. 3. The Impact of Housing Factors on Claw Lesions

The relationship of claw lesions to housing was studied in 36 sow herds. Eighteen herds with loose housing of pregnant sows and 18 herds with confined (stalled or tethered) pregnant sows, were followed over a 12 month period. Fifteen of the loose housing herds had partly slatted concrete floors, while 3 herds had other types of flooring. The mean herd prevalence proportion of sows with major claw lesions in loose housing herds with partly slatted floors was about twice as high as in the herds with confined sows. In the only loose housing herd with deep litter based on straw, the prevalence proportion of sows with major claw lesions was lower than any of the other loose or confined herds. Within herds with loose sows on partly slatted floors, the prevalence proportion of sows with major claw lesions seemed to be higher in the loose housing compartment than in the farrowing compartment. The prevalence proportion of sows with major claw lesions did not differ between loose herds with plastic slats and loose herds with concrete slats. kw|Keywords|k]pig; k]feet injuries; k]slatted floors; k]deep litter; k]epidemiology     

Investigation of growth rate variation between commercial pig herds

The study was designed to provide quantifiable information on both within- and between-herd variation in pig growth rate from birth to slaughter and to examine how this was influenced by moving pigs at a common age to a common environment. Five litters were selected from each of eight pig herds in Northern Ireland with varying growth performance. All eight herds were offered the same nutritional regime. Five pigs (three boars and two gilts) were selected from each litter. In each herd, 22 pigs (12 boars and 10 gilts) were weighed individually, every 4 weeks, from 4 to 20 weeks of age. At 4 weeks of age (weaning) three non-sibling boars were taken from each herd and brought to a common environment where they received medication, were housed individually from 6 weeks of age and offered the same dietary regime. They were weighed and feed intakes were recorded twice weekly. A growth rate difference of 61 g/day (P < 0.001), 112 g/day (P < 0.01) and 170 g/day (P < 0.001) was observed on farm, between the top and bottom quartile of herds during 4 to 8, 8 to 12 and 12 to 20 weeks of age, respectively. This difference in growth rate equated to an average difference in cost of production of ￠13/kg carcass on a birth to bacon unit. When pigs from the different herds were housed in the common environment, large variation in growth performance (143 g/day (P < 0.01) and 243 g/day (P < 0.001) for 8 to 12 and 12 to 20 weeks, respectively) was also observed between the top and bottom quartile of herds. Although feed efficiency was similar, a significant feed intake difference of 329 g/day (P < 0.01) and 655 g/day (P < 0.001) between 8 to 12 and 12 to 20 weeks of age was observed. The variation in growth rate between pigs whether managed on farm or in the common environment was similar (variation in days to 100 kg on farm and in the common environment was 18 and 19 days, respectively). When housed in the common environment, although the top and bottom quartile of pigs converted feed equally efficiently, pigs in the top quartile had significantly higher feed intakes suggesting greater appetites. It is difficult to assess the extent to which these differences can be attributed to genetic effects or pre-weaning environment, and how much the effects of management, disease or genetics contributed to the variation between and within herds.     

Comparison of the Prevalence and Incidence of Infection with Bovine Virus Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV) in Denmark and Michigan and Association with Possible Risk Factors

Based on 2 previous surveys on the occurrence of infection with bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) in Danish and Michigan dairy herds, the prevalence and incidence of the infection were compared. The presence of certain possible risk factors for the occurrence of infection in the 2 areas were summarized and it was investigated if any of these risk factors had significant effect on the presence of animals persistently infected (PI) with BVDV in the dairy herds. Information on the cattle population density in the 2 areas was obtained from statistical yearbooks. Further information for the individual farms on age distribution, housing of animals, herd size, pasturing and purchasing policy was gathered. The prevalence of PI animals was more than 10 times higher in Denmark as compared to Michigan. In herds without PI animals, the annual incidence of seroconversion as calculated from the age specific prevalence of antibody carriers varied in most age groups between 20–25% in Denmark and between 5–10% in Michigan. All investigated risk factors except for herd size were in favour of a lower prevalence of infection in Michigan. The use of having animals on pasture and at the same time having purchased more than 40 animals within recent 31/2–4 years were significantly associated with presence of PI animals in the dairy herds (p = 0.01) when tested by the Mantel-Haenszel χ2. Using mul-tivariable logistic regression, the occurrence of PI animals was found to be significantly related to the study area (Michigan and Denmark) as well as to herd size and purchase intensity.     

Aligning health and welfare principles and practice in organic dairy systems: a review

This review provides an assessment of research findings into the current practices and standards and the principles and aspirations for organic dairy production, with respect to the health and welfare of the dairy cow. The relationships between the four main factors: management, environment, genetics and nutrition and their impact on the health and welfare status of organic dairy cows are considered. The concept that good animal health and welfare is more than merely the absence of disease, with behavioural aspects of health and welfare such as physiological and psychological needs, is also discussed. These factors are inter-related and important in all dairy systems, irrespective of whether the system is organic, low-input or intensive. Incidences of individual clinical and sub-clinical diseases that are recorded in conventional dairy systems also occur in organic dairy systems, with infertility, lameness and mastitis being the major problems. However, the magnitude of the incidence of many of these diseases may be either lower or higher in organic systems due to different management practices and the standards defined for organic milk production that, for example, prohibit the routine use of conventional medicines and require the feeding of high-forage diets. In relation to different systems, it is important to note that contrary to a common assumption, good welfare does not necessarily occur with more extensive systems. The type of organic system (self-sufficient, purchased-feed) also has the potential to have a major influence on the incidence of health problems and the reproductive status of organic dairy herds. Health status is also influenced by environmental and welfare factors, including the method of rearing replacement animals, type of housing and the geographical and climatic conditions of individual farms. Overall, this review identifies where conflicts arise between current practice and the organic principles and standards, and aims to provide suggestions to bring about further improvement in organic dairy health and welfare.     

Managing Variability: Herding Strategies in Communal Rangelands of Semiarid Namaqualand, South Africa

Herd mobility is a tool for managing environmental variability in African pastoral systems. This study examines the monthly mobility patterns of 24 herds over six years in the 20,000 ha communal area of Paulshoek, Namaqualand, and assesses the social, economic, and ecological factors affecting the livestock movement of individual herds and all herds combined. When the mobility pattern of all herds was considered, no seasonal or between-year differences in response to rainfall were evident. An analysis of individual herd mobility patterns showed that half of the herds were relatively sedentary over the study period while the other half were regularly mobile. Although herders used mobility to manage their herds in the unpredictable semiarid environment, their daily decisions were often made in response to their social, economic, or personal situations. There was no significant difference in livestock production between herding strategies, but sedentary herders had a greater localized impact on the rangeland than mobile herders. Our analysis suggests that non-environmental factors play a significant role in herd mobility and may consequently affect the efficiency of livestock production and environmental management.     

Evaluation of on-farm veal calves’ responses to unfamiliar humans and potential influencing factors

The human–animal relationship is an important component of the welfare of farm animals and for this reason animal responsiveness tests to humans are included in on-farm welfare assessment schemes that provide indicators for this. However, apart from the behaviour of stockpersons towards their animals, other factors may also influence animals’ reactivity to humans as observed through behavioural tests, which can add a further layer of complexity to the interpretation of test results. Knowledge of these factors may help a better interpretation of differences from one farm to another in the outcome of human–animal relationship tests, and may provide clues for improving the relationship between animals and humans. The main objective of this study was to identify whether management or environmental factors could influence the outcome of human–animal relationship tests in veal calves. Two tests were performed when calves were aged 14.9 ± 1.6 (SD) weeks in 148 veal farms: the voluntary approach of an unfamiliar human standing at the feeding fence and the reaction towards an unfamiliar human who entered the home pen and tried to touch each calf in a standardised way (Calf Escape Test (CET) – score 0 to 4). Questionnaires were filled in and interviews with the stockpersons were performed in order to obtain information on stockpersons, management, animal and building characteristics. The latency to touch an unfamiliar human at the feeding fence was significantly correlated with the CET scores. Total number of calves on the farm, space allowance, breed, environmental enrichment, stockperson's experience and season of observation influenced the percentage of calves that scored 0 in CET (i.e. calves that could not be approached). Type of milk distribution, type of breed and number of calves per stockperson influenced the percentage of calves that scored 4 in CET (i.e. calves could be touched). For both CET0 and CET4, the level of self-reported contacts by the stockperson (analysed only on the French subset of 36 farms) did not influence the results. This paper concludes that according to the tests conducted on veal calves on commercial farms, factors such as milk distribution method, breed of the calves or the level of experience of stockpersons with veal farming can have an impact on the results of tests focusing on human–animal relationships.     

Effect of faecal soiling on skatole and androstenone occurrence in organic entire male pigs

Production of entire male pigs could be a future strategy for organic pig production. However, production of entire males leads to increased risk of carcasses with elevated boar taint levels. It is hypothesized that skatole levels in pig meat are affected by faecal soiling and that organic housing facilities can increase the risk of pigs being heavily soiled. Therefore, the overall aim of this study was to investigate if increased pig and pen soiling increases skatole concentration in entire male pigs. In five herds, 1174 organic entire male pigs were reared in four batches across two seasons, summer and winter. Measurements of pig and pen soiling, as well as fat skatole and androstenone concentration and human nose sensory tests of fat odour, were performed. Skatole and androstenone concentrations varied greatly within and between herds with a 10% and 90% percentile for the overall population of 0.02 and 2.25 µg/g for skatole and 0.53 and 4.84 µg/g for androstenone. Human nose positive tests averaged 18.3% with great variation between herds and seasons. Pen soiling had significant effects on pig soiling. Moreover, outdoor pen soiling significantly affected skatole concentration in interactions with herd and season (P<0.001 and P=0.003) and affected human nose positive risk in interaction with herd (P=0.005). Soiling on indoor pen areas did not affect skatole levels and no effect on androstenone was found for any pen area. Soiling of pigs affected both skatole and androstenone levels, with the size of the head and abdomen body areas covered in manure showing significant positive effects on skatole concentration. No effect of density of the manure layer was found on either boar taint measure. Herd significantly affected both skatole and androstenone in fat as well as the human nose positive risk. The human nose test revealed no effect from pig soiling. A large variation in the different boar taint measures was found for both high and low scores of pen and pig soiling, and only a small difference in skatole and androstenone concentrations between the high and low soiling categories was found. Therefore, while increasing the hygiene management could be a strategy for reducing boar taint in production of organic entire male pigs, it should be emphasized that other factors would also need to be considered.     

An Investigation of Ovine Pneumonia in Four Herds from Central Norway

In a study of 4 sheep herds, 1 apparently healthy and 3 having respiratory problems, lesions typical of subacute or chronic pneumonia were found in 3–36 % of slaughtered lambs. Occurrence appeared to be related to certain environmental factors such as pasture, whereas moderate lungworm invasion was not found to contribute to subacute or chronic pneumonia. Relation between pneumonia and low carcass weight was established only in 1 herd. Lungs were subjected to microbiological examination. Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae was isolated from both normal and pneumonic lungs from all 4 herds. The prevalence was far higher in pneumonic (98 %) than in normal ones (28 %). Bacteria, mostly Pasteurella haemolytica, were also found in both pneumonic (49 %) and normal (18 %) lungs from all 4 herds. These results confirm the conclusions of a previous study that M. ovipneumoniae is of etiological significance in subacute or chronic pneumonia, whereas bacteria mainly occur as secondary invaders. M. ovipneumoniae appears, however, only to be a potential pathogen. Examinations for Mycoplasma arginini and virus were negative and these agents are considered to be of less significance in subacute or chronic pneumonia under Norwegian conditions.     

Longitudinal study on transmission of MRSA CC398 within pig herds

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Since the detection of MRSA CC398 in pigs in 2004, it has emerged in livestock worldwide. MRSA CC398 has been found in people in contact with livestock and thus has become a public health issue. Data from a large-scale longitudinal study in two Danish and four Dutch pig herds were used to quantify MRSA CC398 transmission rates within pig herds and to identify factors affecting transmission between pigs. RESULTS: Sows and their offspring were sampled at varying intervals during a production cycle. Overall MRSA prevalence of sows increased from 33% before farrowing to 77% before weaning. Overall MRSA prevalence of piglets was > 60% during the entire study period. The recurrent finding of MRSA in the majority of individuals indicates true colonization or might be the result of contamination. Transmission rates were estimated using a Susceptible-Infectious-Susceptible (SIS-)model, which resulted in values of the reproduction ratio (R0) varying from 0.24 to 8.08. Transmission rates were higher in pigs treated with tetracyclins and beta-lactams compared to untreated pigs implying a selective advantage of MRSA CC398 when these antimicrobials are used. Furthermore, transmission rates were higher in pre-weaning pigs compared to post-weaning pigs which might be explained by an age-related susceptibility or the presence of the sow as a primary source of MRSA CC398. Finally, transmission rates increased with the relative increase of the infection pressure within the pen compared to the total infection pressure, implying that within-pen transmission is a more important route compared to between-pen transmission and transmission through environmental exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that MRSA CC398 is able to spread and persist in pig herds, resulting in an endemic situation. Transmission rates are affected by the use of selective antimicrobials and by the age of pigs.     

Decoupled distance–decay patterns between dsrA and 16S rRNA genes among salt marsh sulfate‐reducing bacteria

In many habitats, microorganisms exhibit significant distance–decay patterns as determined by analysis of the 16S rRNA gene and various other genetic elements. However, there have been few studies that examine how the similarities of both taxonomic and functional genes co‐vary over geographic distance within a group of ecologically related microbes. Here, we determined the biogeographic patterns of the functional dissimilatory sulfite reductase gene (dsrA) and the 16S rRNA gene in sulfate‐reducing bacterial communities of US East Coast salt marsh sediments. Distance–decay, ordination and statistical analyses revealed that the distribution of 16S rRNA genes is strongly influenced by geographic distance and environmental factors, whereas the dsrA gene is not. Together, our results indicate that 16S rRNA genes are likely dispersal limited and under environmental selection, whereas dsrA genes appear randomly distributed and not selected for by any expected environmental variables. Selection, drift, dispersal and mutation are all factors that may help explain the decoupled biogeographic patterns for the two genes. These data suggest that both the taxonomic and functional elements of microbial communities should be considered in future studies of microbial biogeography to aid in our understanding of the diversity, distribution and function of microorganisms in the environment.     

Factors Related to Dairy Herds with a High and Low Incidence of Ketosis

Factors associated with the incidence of ketosis were studied in 10 herds with a high incidence of the condition (H herds) and 12 herds with a low incidence, (L herds), based on available production data and one-day recordings undertaken once in each herd. Annual milk yield was at the same level in H and L herds. Fat-corrected (4% standard) maximum daily milk yield was significantly lower, and the corresponding % milk fat significantly higher, in the H herds. Feeding control showed that about one fattening feed unit more of roughages was fed per cow per day in the L herds, in which the roughage diet was also more varied. In the H herds, plasma acetoacetate and free fatty acid levels were higher 2–30 and 31–60 days after calving, whereas plasma glucose levels were lower 2–30 days after calving. The acetoacetate level in morning milk and in blood plasma before feeding were significantly correlated (r = 0.971). The estimated energy balance for cows 2–60 days after calving was at the same level in both herd categories. The study design used did not appear to be suited for revealing causal factors as a basis for preventive action in herds with a high incidence of ketosis.     

Evaluation of the impact of a Herd Health and Production Management programme in organic dairy cattle farms: a process evaluation approach

Animal health planning activities are not always providing a satisfactory positive impact on herd health and welfare. Moreover, evaluating the impact of advisory programmes is complex due to multiple interacting elements that influence its outcome. Therefore, measuring solely health outcomes is not sufficient: the whole process of the implementation and use of such programmes should be evaluated. In order to evaluate the impact of an intervention with a Herd Health and Production Management (HHPM) programme a process evaluation framework was designed and used. The intervention involved 20 organic dairy cattle farmers and their advisors, in both France and Sweden. In both countries 20 organic dairy farms were selected as control herds. The evaluation of the HHPM programme was based on: (a) the compliance to the programme; (b) the programme’s functions influencing herd health management practices and stimulating dialogue between farmers and advisors; (c) its effectiveness in terms of improving herd health compared with control farms. Complete compliance to the programme was fulfilled by 21 out of 40 farmers–advisors. Results from a questionnaire showed that the programme functioned as intended (e.g. by allowing early identification of herd health problems), stimulated change in farmers’ herd health management practices and farmer–advisor dialogue. Even though the majority of the users perceived that the programme contributed to herd health improvements, no significant differences in health outcomes were found when compared with control farms 12 months after the start of the intervention. The programme allowed creating an environment promoting the exchange of information between farmers and advisors, necessary to define pertinent advice in a farm-specific situation. Future research should aim at improving methods for the evaluation of the effect of advisory programmes, by identifying early indicators for effective advice and developing methods to evaluate the quality of advisory situations without interfering with them.     

Food availability and parasite infection influence the correlated responses of life history traits to selection for age at pupation in the mosquito Aedes aegypti

We selected six lines of mosquito Aedes aegypti for earlier or later pupation and measured the correlated responses of several life history traits: adult size, two fecundity measures and pre-adult survival. We further examined the influence of two environmental parameters – larval food availability and infection by the microsporidian parasite Edhazardia aedis– on the correlated responses. Pre-adult survival did not respond to selection for age at pupation in any environment. For all of the other traits, the environment influenced the correlated response, though the contribution of the different environmental aspects differed among traits. While the correlated response of adult size was influenced only by larval food availability, the likelihood that a female laid eggs was influenced by parasite infection, and the correlated response of the number of eggs was influenced by the interaction of the two environmental parameters. Generally, a deteriorating environment moved the correlated response from one favouring later pupation to one favouring earlier pupation. Larval food availability and parasite infection also influenced the association between the mean wing length and fecundity of the selected lines. At high food availability, there was a positive relationship between adult size and fecundity, while infected mosquitoes reared at low food availability showed the opposite trend. We discuss these results in light of the coevolutionary potential of the host–parasite interaction.     

Lameness and Claw Lesions of the Norwegian Red Dairy Cattle Housed in Free Stalls in Relation to Environment,Parity and Stage of Lactation

Approximately 88% of Norwegian dairy cattle are housed in tie stalls. Free stall housing for all dairy cattle will be implemented within 20 years. This means that the majority of existing stalls will be rebuilt in the near future. Fifty-seven free stall herds of the Norwegian Red breed were randomly selected and 1547 cows and 403 heifers were trimmed by 13 claw trimmers during the late winter and spring of 2002. The claw trimmers had been taught diagnosing and recording of claw lesions. Environment, management- and feeding routines were also recorded. Fifty-three herds had concrete slatted alleys while 4 had solid concrete. Thirty-five herds had concrete as a stall base, while 17 had rubber mats, 2 had wood and 3 had deep litter straw beds. The prevalence of lameness was 1.6% in hind claws. Models for lameness and claw lesions were designed to estimate the influence of different risk factors and to account for the cluster effects within herd and claw trimmer. Detected risk factors for lameness were: parity three and above and narrow cubicles; for heel horn erosions: lactation stage around 5–7 months after calving and solid concrete alleys; for haemorrhages of the white line: lactation stage around 3–5 months after calving and solid concrete alleys; for haemorrhages of the sole: parity one, lactation stage around 5–7 months after calving and short cubicles, for white line fissures: slatted concrete alleys; for asymmetrical claws: parities two and above and for corkscrewed claws: solid concrete alleys. The prevalence of lameness in heifers was low, however 29% had one or more claw lesions. Heifers that were housed in pens or free stalls had more heel-horn erosions, haemorrhages of the sole and white-line fissures than heifers in tie stalls. As new free stalls are being built, it is important to optimise the conditions for claw health.     

Sanitary-epidemiological situation in town Verkhnyaya Pyshma in 2006

Information on medical and demographic as well as sanitary-epidemiologic situation in town Verkhnyaya Pyshma is presented. The town belongs to group of territories with unfavourable ecologic situation. It was shown that social, economical, and sanitary-hygienic factors influence on public health. Priority pollutants of environment and indicators of public health are presented. For solving problems of protection of public health, ensuring the sanitary-epidemiologic welfare and ecologic safety in modern conditions, more effective, accessible, and economical mechanisms of management of environment and public health should be introduced with respect to action of factors of economical and social development of municipality as well as to realization of national projects.     

Functional-cranial approach to the influence of economic strategy on skull morphology

Environmental factors are assumed to play an important role in the shaping of craniofacial morphology. Here we propose a statistical approach which can be of utility in estimating the magnitude and localization of a particular nongenetic factor upon the specific functional components of the skull. Our analysis is a combination of previous attempts of apportionment of variance and the application of craniofunctional theory. The effect of subsistence strategy on craniofacial functional components was studied on 18 populations of hunter-gatherers and farmers from South America. Results demonstrate that the environmental factors studied likely influenced the masticatory component's size and shape. Even when this effect is not large enough to clearly differentiate among subsistence strategies (since whole craniofacial variation among populations remains greater), the method used here provides interesting clues to localize plastic or adaptive responses to external stimuli.