拟南芥色氨酸与吲哚乙酸生物合成的研究进展

拟南芥色氨酸生物合成途径的研究已逐成为植物分析生物学家了解植物基因结构和表达调控最主要的模式系统之一。到目前为止,编码拟南芥色氨酸合成途径的七种酶蛋白的基因已经全部被克隆,并进行了不同程度的分子生物学研究。长期以来,色氨酸一直被认为是生长素吲哚乙酸乙酸（ＩＡＡ）生物合成（从头合成）的前体物,但近年来人们发现生长素的非色氨酸途径可能是其在植物中生物合成的主要途径,植物在不同的发育阶段可能采用不同的方     

拟南芥色氨酸与吲哚乙酸生物合成的研究进展

拟南芥色氨酸生物合成途径的研究已逐渐成为植物分子生物学家了解植物基因结构和表达调控最主要的模式系统之一。到目前为止,编码拟南芥色氨酸合成途径的七种酶蛋白的基因已经全部被克隆,并进行了不同程度的分子生物学研究。长期以来,色氨酸一直被认为是植物生长素吲哚乙酸（ＩＡＡ）生物合成（从头合成）的前体物,但近年来人们发现生长素合成的非色氨酸途径可能是其在植物中生物合成的主要途径。植物在不同的发育阶段可能采用不同的方式合成ＩＡＡ。     

利用酵母双杂交筛选豌豆叶绿体镁离子螯合酶D亚基相互作用蛋白

植物叶绿体镁离子螯合酶是四吡咯化合物生物合成途径中合成叶绿素分支(镁分支)的第一个酶,它催化镁离子螯合到原卟啉IX中,形成镁原卟啉IX. 镁离子螯合酶是1个由3个亚基H、D和I组成的多亚基酶,3个亚基均由细胞核编码,进入叶绿体发挥功能.该酶不仅控制着叶绿素的合成,其各个亚基还具有很多其它的功能：H亚基既是ABA受体,又参与叶绿体到细胞核的反向信号传导;D亚基也与叶绿体到细胞核的反向信号传导有关. 本文利用酵母双杂交技术,将编码豌豆镁离子螯合酶D亚基的cDNA片段构建到诱饵载体pGBKT7中,分别用共转化的方法筛选豌豆叶片细胞核编码的均一化cDNA文库和用Mating的方法筛选豌豆叶片叶绿体编码的均一化cDNA文库,共得到121个候选克隆,其中有60个克隆共编码21个叶绿体蛋白质,19个来自于核基因编码,2个来自于叶绿体基因编码. 这些候选蛋白参与叶绿素合成、卡尔文循环、叶绿体蛋白质翻译和叶绿体基因转录等多个代谢过程. 酵母点对点和GST-pull down对其中的4个蛋白做了进一步的验证.这些结果将为D亚基的功能研究提供进一步的线索.     

拟南芥AST基因的精细作图

拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana(L.)Heynh.)ast(anthocyanin spottedtesta)突变体是由碳离子辐射诱导产生的与花青苷生物合成有关的基因突变体,受单隐性核基因控制.根据拟南芥数据库中的SNPs(single nucleotide polv-mophisms)序列和插入/缺失多态性(insertion/deletion polymorphisms)序列,设计了一系列分子标记.采用图位克隆策略,应用这些分子标记完成了对拟南芥AST基因的精细作图,成功地将AST基因定位到BAC克隆T13M11上,初步认为该BAC克隆中的基因T13M11.8可能是AST基因.该基因的DNA序列长1432bp,含有6个外显子和5个内含子,编码的蛋白与花青苷生物合成途径中的二氢黄酮醇-4-还原酶有较高的同源性.将进一步通过功能互补实验验证图位克隆的结果.     

小麦叶绿素酶基因家族的鉴定及其叶绿素降解过程中的功能预测

叶绿素酶(CLH)是植物叶绿素降解过程中的关键酶,在植物生长发育过程中发挥着重要作用.为了解小麦CLH基因家族成员在叶绿素降解过程中的功能差异,本试验采用生物信息学分析方法和实时荧光定量PCR(qRT-PCR)技术对小麦CLH基因家族进行鉴定和初步功能分析,结果表明:小麦中共鉴定到13个CLH成员(TaCLH1～TaC...     

叶绿素合成关键酶基因表达的半定量RT-PCR分析

为了解叶绿素合成关键酶基因在大豆不同生育期的表达情况,本研究以拟南芥叶绿素合成关键酶基因序列设计引物,大豆科丰14和它的持绿突变体BN108为试材,利用半定量RT-PCR分析了9种叶绿素合成关键酶基因在开花期和成熟前期表达量的变化。结果表明,HEMA、GSA、HEME、POR、CHLG基因在成熟前期表达量显著下降(p0.05),尤其是HEMA和GSA基因的表达量下降幅度较大,说明上述基因在叶绿素生物合成过程中起到主要调控作用;而突变体BN108有别于科丰14,GSA、HEME、CHLM和CAO基因表达量在成熟前期不降反升,推测持绿突变体在成熟前期叶绿素能够维持较大的合成量,是植物持绿现象的重要原因之一。     

苹果属垂丝海棠MhPPOX1基因克隆及抗缺铁性功能鉴定

原卟啉原氧化酶(Protoporphyrinogen oxidase, PPOX1) 是叶绿素生物合成途径中的关键酶,为深入探究苹果PPOX1基因的功能,该研究以苹果砧木垂丝海棠(Malus halliana)为试材,采用PCR方法,克隆MhPPOX1基因,并进行生物信息学分析及功能鉴定;采用农杆菌介导法转化烟草和拟南芥,进一步分析MhPPOX1在缺铁胁迫中的功能,并对转基因烟草与拟南芥进行抗性分析。结果表明：(1)成功克隆获得 垂丝海棠MhPPOX1基因片段,经序列比对鉴定为苹果的 MhPPOX1基因(序列号：LOC103444480)。MhPPOX1基因的开放阅读框为1 644 bp,编码547个氨基酸,等电点为8.98;系统进化树分析表明,苹果属垂丝海棠MhPPOX1与白梨该家族蛋白的亲缘关系最近。(2)成功克隆获得垂丝海棠MhPPOX1启动子序列片段(2 016 bp),对该启动子顺式作用元件预测结果显示,MhPPOX1启动子序列中存在干旱、低温、光、生长素以及与叶绿素相关等响应元件。(3)成功构建过表达载体 MhPPOX1 pRI101,并成功获得转MhPPOX1基因烟草和拟南芥。(4)qRT PCR分析表明,垂丝海棠幼苗在缺铁( Fe)胁迫下植株叶片黄化枯死,且MhPPOX1基因表达量较对照显著升高;转MhPPOX1基因烟草和拟南芥在缺铁胁迫中与野生型相比均生长良好,不易黄化,且缺铁条件下转基因拟南芥和烟草的叶绿素a、叶绿素b总量以及总铁含量明显高于野生型植株,表明MhPPOX1基因过量表达提高了拟南芥和烟草对缺铁胁迫的抗性。研究认为,MhPPOX1基因在植物抵抗缺铁胁迫中可能发挥重要作用。     

紫杉醇生物合成途径中相关酶的研究进展

抗癌新药紫杉醇是具有萜类环状结构的一种重要次生代谢产物 ,研究紫杉醇的生物合成对于通过基因工程手段提高紫杉醇的产量 ,解决目前资源紧缺造成的巨大供求矛盾具有重要意义 ,这就需要对紫杉醇生物合成途径中催化各步反应 (尤其是关键步骤 )的酶以及编码这些酶的基因有个全面的了解。对近年来紫杉醇生物合成途径中相关酶的研究进行了综述 ,大部分酶及相关基因已被分离、克隆 ,但还有一些酶及相关基因没有发现 ,有待继续深入研究。     

异源表达CiRS基因通过生成白藜芦醇增强拟南芥的抗氧化能力

白藜芦醇是一种具有多种医疗保健作用的植物芪类次生代谢产物,在农业、医药、食品和化妆品等领域受到广泛的关注。白藜芦醇合酶是白藜芦醇生物合成中唯一必需的关键酶,决定植物体内白藜芦醇的合成。将中间锦鸡儿中克隆到的CiRS基因(Gen Bank登录号MF678590)转入野生型拟南芥,实验结果显示:野生型的总黄酮含量明显高于转基因株系。HPLC测得转基因拟南芥中有白藜芦醇的生成,并且含量最高达335μg/g FW。紫外照射处理后转基因植物中丙二醛的积累量明显少于野生型。转基因植物提取物DPPH自由基清除能力均高于野生型。这些结果表明,中间锦鸡儿CiRS基因异源表达后利用与黄酮类物质的共同底物合成了白藜芦醇,使得转基因植物的抗氧化性增强。     

植物纤维素合成酶基因和纤维素的生物合成

纤维素地球上最丰富的生物大分子和最重要的可再生资源,1996年克隆了第一个植物纤维素合成酶基因,植物纤维素的生物合成需要多个纤维素合成酶与其他相关酶如Korrigan纤维素酶,蔗糖合成酶等来共同完成。本文介绍了植物纤维素合成酶基因和纤维素的生物合成途径及其相关基因如蔗糖合成酶基因、KORRIG-AN基因等研究进展。     

Clp protease controls chlorophyll b synthesis by regulating the level of chlorophyllide a oxygenase

Chlorophyll b is one of the major light-harvesting pigments in green plants and it is essential for optimal light harvesting. Chlorophyll b is synthesized from chlorophyll a by chlorophyllide a oxygenase (CAO) which consists of A, B and C domains. Previously, we demonstrated that the C domain alone has a catalytic function, while the A and B domains control the level of CAO protein in response to chlorophyll b accumulation. We hypothesized that the accumulation of chlorophyll b triggers the proteolytic degradation of CAO. In this study, in order to gain further insight into this regulatory mechanism we screened for mutants that have defects in the control of CAO accumulation. Seeds from a transgenic line of Arabidopsis which overexpressed a CAO-GFP fusion were mutagenized and their progenies were screened by laser-scanning confocal microscopy for mutants showing an elevated level of GFP fluorescence. One particular mutant (dca1) exhibited stronger GFP fluorescence and accumulated a GFP-CAO fusion protein at a higher level. Concomitantly, the chlorophyll a to b ratio decreased in this mutant. The mutation in the dca1 mutant was mapped to the ClpC1 gene, thereby indicating that a chloroplast Clp protease is involved in regulating chlorophyll b biosynthesis through the destabilization of CAO protein in response to the accumulation of chlorophyll b.     

Identification of a vinyl reductase gene for chlorophyll synthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana and implications for the evolution of Prochlorococcus species

Chlorophyll metabolism has been extensively studied with various organisms, and almost all of the chlorophyll biosynthetic genes have been identified in higher plants. However, only the gene for 3,8-divinyl protochlorophyllide a 8-vinyl reductase (DVR), which is indispensable for monovinyl chlorophyll synthesis, has not been identified yet. In this study, we isolated an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant that accumulated divinyl chlorophyll instead of monovinyl chlorophyll by ethyl methanesulfonate mutagenesis. Map-based cloning of this mutant resulted in the identification of a gene (AT5G18660) that shows sequence similarity with isoflavone reductase genes. The mutant phenotype was complemented by the transformation with the wild-type gene. A recombinant protein encoded by AT5G18660 was expressed in Escherichia coli and found to catalyze the conversion of divinyl chlorophyllide to monovinyl chlorophyllide, thereby demonstrating that the gene encodes a functional DVR. DVR is encoded by a single copy gene in the A. thaliana genome. With the identification of DVR, finally all genes required for chlorophyll biosynthesis have been identified in higher plants. Analysis of the complete genome of A. thaliana showed that it has 15 enzymes encoded by 27 genes for chlorophyll biosynthesis from glutamyl-tRNA(glu) to chlorophyll b. Furthermore, identification of the DVR gene helped understanding the evolution of Prochlorococcus marinus, a marine cyanobacterium that is dominant in the open ocean and is uncommon in using divinyl chlorophylls. A DVR homolog was not found in the genome of P. marinus but found in the Synechococcus sp WH8102 genome, which is consistent with the distribution of divinyl chlorophyll in marine cyanobacteria of the genera Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus.     

Chlorophyll cycle regulates the construction and destruction of the light-harvesting complexes

Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are the major constituents of the photosynthetic apparatus in land plants and green algae. Chlorophyll a is essential in photochemistry, while chlorophyll b is apparently dispensable for their photosynthesis. Instead, chlorophyll b is necessary for stabilizing the major light-harvesting chlorophyll-binding proteins. Chlorophyll b is synthesized from chlorophyll a and is catabolized after it is reconverted to chlorophyll a. This interconversion system between chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b refers to the chlorophyll cycle. The chlorophyll b levels are determined by the activity of the three enzymes participating in the chlorophyll cycle, namely, chlorophyllide a oxygenase, chlorophyll b reductase, and 7-hydroxymethyl-chlorophyll reductase. This article reviews the recent progress on the analysis of the chlorophyll cycle and its enzymes. In particular, we emphasize the impact of genetic modification of chlorophyll cycle enzymes on the construction and destruction of the photosynthetic machinery. These studies reveal that plants regulate the construction and destruction of a specific subset of light-harvesting complexes through the chlorophyll cycle. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Regulation of Electron Transport in Chloroplasts.     

Novel inhibitors of glutamyl-tRNA(Glu) reductase identified through cell-based screening of the heme/chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway

The metabolite 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) is an early committed intermediate in the biosynthetic pathway of heme and chlorophyll formation. In plants, 5-aminolevulinic acid is synthesized via a two-step pathway in which glutamyl-tRNA(Glu) is reduced by glutamyl-tRNA(Glu) reductase (GluTR) to glutamate 1-semialdehyde, followed by transformation to 5-aminolevulinic acid catalyzed by glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase. Using an Escherichia coli cell-based high-throughput assay to screen small molecule libraries, we identified several chemical classes that specifically inhibit heme/chlorophyll biosynthesis at this point by demonstrating that the observed cell growth inhibition is reversed by supplementing the medium with 5-aminolevulinic acid. These compounds were further tested in vitro for inhibition of the purified enzymes GluTR and glutamate 1-semialdehyde aminotransferase as confirmation of the specificity and site of action. Several promising compounds were identified from the high-throughput screen that inhibit GluTR with an I(0.5) of less than 10 microM. Our results demonstrate the efficacy of cell-based high-throughput screening for identifying inhibitors of 5-aminolevulinic acid biosynthesis, thus representing the first report of exogenous inhibitors of this enzyme.     

Purification and Characterization of Glutamyl-tRNA Synthetase : An Enzyme Involved in Chlorophyll Biosynthesis

Chlorophyll biosynthesis starts with the synthesis of glutamyl-tRNA (glu-tRNA) by a glutamyl-tRNA synthetase (Glu RS). The glu-tRNA is subsequently transformed to δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), which is a committed and regulated precursor in the chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway. The Glu RS from a green alga, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, was purified and shown to be able to synthesize glu-tRNA and to participate in ALA synthesis in a coupled enzyme assay. Physical and chemical characterization of the purified Glu RS indicated that the enzyme had been purified to homogeneity. The purified enzyme has a native molecular weight of 60,000, an isoelectric point of 4.6, and it formed a single band of 32,500 daltons when analyzed by a silver stained denaturing gel. The N-terminal amino acid sequence of the 32,500 dalton protein was determined to be Asn-Lys-Val-Ala-Leu-Leu-Gly-Ala-Ala-Gly. The molecular weight analyses together with the unambiguous N-terminal amino acid sequence obtained from the purified enzyme suggested that the native enzyme was composed of two identical subunits. Polyclonal antibodies raised against the purified and denatured enzyme were able to inhibit the activity of the native enzyme and to interact specifically with the 32,500 dalton band on Western blots. Thus, the antibodies provided an additional linkage for the structural and functional identities of the enzyme. In vitro experiments showed that over 90% of the glu RS activity was inhibited by 5 micromolar heme, which suggested that Glu RS may be a regulated enzyme in the chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway.     

Characterization of SOC1's Central Role in Flowering by the Identification of Its Upstream and Downstream Regulators

Chlorophyll b is synthesized by the oxidation of a methyl group on the B ring of a tetrapyrrole molecule to a formyl group by chlorophyllide a oxygenase (CAO). The full-length CAO from Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) was overexpressed in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) that grows well at light intensities much higher than those tolerated by Arabidopsis. This resulted in an increased synthesis of glutamate semialdehyde, 5-aminolevulinic acid, magnesium-porphyrins, and chlorophylls. Overexpression of CAO resulted in increased chlorophyll b synthesis and a decreased chlorophyll a/b ratio in low light-grown as well as high light-grown tobacco plants; this effect, however, was more pronounced in high light. The increased potential of the protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase activity and chlorophyll biosynthesis compensated for the usual loss of chlorophylls in high light. Increased chlorophyll b synthesis in CAO-overexpressed plants was accompanied not only by an increased abundance of light-harvesting chlorophyll proteins but also of other proteins of the electron transport chain, which led to an increase in the capture of light as well as enhanced (40%-80%) electron transport rates of photosystems I and II at both limiting and saturating light intensities. Although the quantum yield of carbon dioxide fixation remained unchanged, the light-saturated photosynthetic carbon assimilation, starch content, and dry matter accumulation increased in CAO-overexpressed plants grown in both low- and high-light regimes. These results demonstrate that controlled up-regulation of chlorophyll b biosynthesis comodulates the expression of several thylakoid membrane proteins that increase both the antenna size and the electron transport rates and enhance carbon dioxide assimilation, starch content, and dry matter accumulation.     

Cloning and functional expression of the gene encoding the key enzyme for chlorophyll b biosynthesis (CAO) from Arabidopsis thaliana

Chlorophyll (Chl) biosynthesis and degradation are the only biochemical processes on Earth that can be directly observed from satellites or other planets. The bulk of the Chls is found in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosynthetic organisms. Surprisingly little is known about the biosynthesis of Chl b, which is the second most abundant Chl pigment after Chl a. We describe here the expression and properties of the chlorophyllide a oxygenase gene (CAO) from Arabidopsis thaliana, which is apparently the key enzyme in Chl b biosynthesis. The recombinant enzyme produced in Escherichia coli catalyses an unusual two-step oxygenase reaction that is the 'missing link' in the chlorophyll cycle of higher plants.     

The Non-canonical Tetratricopeptide Repeat (TPR) Domain of Fluorescent (FLU) Mediates Complex Formation with Glutamyl-tRNA Reductase

The tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR)-containing protein FLU is a negative regulator of chlorophyll biosynthesis in plants. It directly interacts through its TPR domain with glutamyl-tRNA reductase (GluTR), the rate-limiting enzyme in the formation of δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA). Delineation of how FLU binds to GluTR is important for understanding the molecular basis for FLU-mediated repression of synthesis of ALA, the universal tetrapyrrole precursor. Here, we characterize the FLU-GluTR interaction by solving the crystal structures of the uncomplexed TPR domain of FLU (FLU^TPR) at 1.45-Å resolution and the complex of the dimeric domain of GluTR bound to FLU^TPR at 2.4-Å resolution. Three non-canonical TPR motifs of each FLU^TPR form a concave surface and clamp the helix bundle in the C-terminal dimeric domain of GluTR. We demonstrate that a 2:2 FLU^TPR-GluTR complex is the functional unit for FLU-mediated GluTR regulation and suggest that the formation of the FLU-GluTR complex prevents glutamyl-tRNA, the GluTR substrate, from binding with this enzyme. These results also provide insights into the spatial regulation of ALA synthesis by the membrane-located FLU protein.