四大家鱼幼鱼运动能力对捕食胁迫的响应

捕食胁迫(胁迫时长和胁迫强度)影响鱼类的运动能力,遭遇捕食者时猎物鱼的逃逸策略不尽相同。为考察鱼类运动能力对捕食胁迫的响应,本实验选取乌鳢(Channa argus)和南方大口鲶(Silurus meridionalis)为捕食者,青鱼(Mylopharyngodon piceus)、草鱼(Ctenopharyngodon idellus)、鲢(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix)、鳙(Aristichthys nobilis)四大家鱼幼鱼为猎物鱼。猎物鱼分别在无捕食(对照)、低捕食(隔网胁迫)和高捕食(直接胁迫)压力下接受捕食胁迫,胁迫时长分0、7和14 d三个水平,随后对比四大家鱼种间运动能力的差异,并考察四大家鱼幼鱼的稳定和非稳定游泳能力在不同捕食胁迫水平(胁迫时长和胁迫强度)下的适应性改变。结果表明：四大家鱼的稳定游泳和非稳定游泳能力之间存在权衡,应对捕食胁迫时以增强快速启动游泳能力为主,临界游泳速度有下降趋势;四大家鱼均表现为“C”型快速启动游泳模式,在快速启动过程中身体旋转主要在第1阶段完成,速度性能在第2阶段达到最大;在捕食压力下,四大家鱼的逃逸策略存...     

温度变化对休耕期冬水田天敌捕食猎物的影响及天敌耐冷性分析

为评估冬水田休耕季节长达6-8个月温度变化对稻田主要捕食性天敌通过觅食策略维持其种群发生的影响,在室内测定了两种代表性温度下青翅蚁形隐翅甲Paederus fuscipes成虫、拟水狼蛛Pirata subpiraticus和拟环纹豹蛛Pardosa pseudoannulata成蛛、亚成蛛对天台刺齿虫兆Homidia tiantaiensis和白翅叶蝉Thaia rubiginosa成虫的捕食功能反应、搜寻效应、自身密度干扰效应以及捕食偏好性;测定了这些捕食者在这两种温度诱导下的过冷却点（Supercooling point,SCP）和结冰点（Freezing point,FP）。结果表明,温度变化显著影响了捕食性天敌的捕食功能反应、对猎物的搜寻效应以及自身密度的干扰反应。在22℃和12℃下,捕食者对刺齿虫兆和叶蝉的捕食功能反应均符合Holling II模型。由捕食功能反应可知,22℃下捕食者对两种猎物的捕食量均高于12℃下的捕食量,两种温度下捕食者对刺齿虫兆的捕食量要显著高于对叶蝉的捕食量。22℃下捕食者对两种猎物的瞬时攻击率、最大捕食量和a/T_h值均相应地高于12℃下的值,而22℃下它们对两种猎物的处理时间则相应地小于12℃下的处理时间。在同一猎物相同温度下,狼蛛和豹蛛亚成蛛的瞬时攻击率、最大捕食量和a/T_h值均相应地高于狼蛛和豹蛛成蛛的值,它们的处理时间则明显小于其成蛛的处理时间。隐翅甲的最大捕食量和a/T_h值在12℃叶蝉试验中均最大,而其处理时间则最小;其它条件下的隐翅甲参数值通常介于狼蛛和豹蛛成蛛、亚成蛛各参数值之间。捕食者对两种猎物的搜寻效应与猎物密度呈负相关;温度变化对捕食者搜寻效应的影响程度与捕食者和猎物的种类有关;22℃下的搜寻效应值均高于12℃下的搜寻效应值。捕食者对两种猎物的捕食作用均随自身密度升高而下降,22℃下对两种猎物和12℃下对刺齿虫兆的搜寻常数和干扰系数值均以狼蛛和豹蛛亚成蛛的为最高,而12℃下对叶蝉的这2个值以豹蛛亚成蛛和隐翅甲的为最高。两种温度下捕食者对这两种猎物存在选择偏好性,更嗜食刺齿虫兆,但温度变化没有对捕食者的这种猎物偏好性产生影响。在这两种温度快速冷驯化下这些捕食者间的SCP和FP均差异显著,通常温度降低能诱导亚成蛛的SCP和FP下降,而成蛛的升高,隐翅甲的变化很小或下降,说明不同捕食者适应温度降低的耐冷特性与其捕食作用间存在一定相关性。     

四种鲤科鱼类对捕食胁迫行为响应的种间比较

为了比较早期捕食胁迫经历和当前环境中存在的捕食者对鱼类行为的影响, 并考查这些影响是否存在种间差异, 研究分别考查了测定环境(有、无捕食者存在)对有、无捕食胁迫经历的鳊(Parabramis pekinensis)、草鱼(Ctenopharyngodon idellus)、鲫(Carassius auratus)和中华倒刺鲃(Spinibarbus sinensis)等4种鲤科鱼类探索性、活跃性和勇敢性的影响。结果发现: 早期捕食胁迫经历与当前环境条件对鱼类行为产生截然不同的影响, 且存在较大的种间差异。无捕食胁迫经历的鳊、草鱼和中华倒刺鲃均会对陌生的捕食者乌鳢(Channa argus)做出行为响应, 提示这3种鱼可能对陌生捕食者具有一定的识别能力, 但这种识别与猎物鱼通过捕食胁迫经历获得的识别仍具有一定差距; 具有捕食胁迫经历的鳊和中华倒刺鲃在空白环境中未表现出反捕食行为, 可能是节约能量的一种策略。总体而言, 草鱼对捕食胁迫经历和测定环境处理反应更为敏感, 而中华倒刺鲃的反应则相对保守。但当周围环境中存在捕食者时, 4种鲤科鱼类均会通过维持较高运动状态的方式来应对捕食者。维持这种应激状态可能对猎物鱼保持与捕食者的距离, 并随时保持警惕较为关键。     

饥饿对捕食者鱼和猎物鱼快速启动游泳能力及捕食-逃逸行为的影响

快速启动游泳是鱼类的游泳方式之一,与捕食和逃避敌害行为密切相关。为了考察饥饿对捕食者乌鳢(Channa argus)和猎物麦穗鱼(Pseudorasbora parva)快速启动游泳能力的影响及其与捕食-逃逸行为的关联,在水温(25±1)℃条件下,测定不同饥饿程度乌鳢[0、7、14、28、63(饥饿半致死)d]和麦穗鱼[0、7、14(饥饿半致死)d]的快速启动游泳能力并观测二者组成的捕食对的捕食-逃逸行为。结果表明:乌鳢快速启动的最大线速度(Vmax)、120 ms移动距离(S120ms)和最大线加速度(Amax)均显著大于麦穗鱼(P0.05),而二者的反应时滞(R)无显著差异;两种鱼的各快速启动参数均较保守,仅在半致死组(14 d或63 d)表现出Vmax、S120ms的下降和R的延长(P0.05),其中捕食者反应时滞的变化更为明显而猎物速度变化更为明显;14 d饥饿导致乌鳢捕食麦穗鱼的追击活动增加和成功捕食历时缩短;由于食物可获得性和觅食方式的差异,猎物鱼快速启动能力对饥饿的响应更为敏感,且二者在对策上存在差异;从捕食-逃逸的结果评判,同等程度的饥饿对捕食者可能更为有利。     

黄带犀猎蝽成虫对斜纹夜蛾幼虫的捕食功能反应

[目的] 探明黄带犀猎蝽成虫对斜纹夜蛾幼虫的捕食潜力。[方法] 在室内条件下,研究了黄带犀猎蝽对斜纹夜蛾2、3、4龄幼虫的捕食功能反应、搜寻效应和干扰反应。[结果] 黄带犀猎蝽成虫对斜纹夜蛾2、3、4龄幼虫的捕食功能反应模型均符合Holling II型,即其捕食量随猎物密度的增加而增加,其搜寻效应随猎物密度的增加而减小,HollingⅡ方程依次为：N_a=0.9750N/（1+0.0273N）、N_a=1.1654N/（1+0.0804N）,N_a=1.3058N/（1+0.1799N）;黄带犀猎蝽成虫自身密度干扰反应符合HasseⅡ型（E=0.337P^-0.565）,即随着自身密度的增加,平均捕食量逐渐减少,捕食作用率逐渐降低。[结论] 黄带犀猎蝽成虫对斜纹夜蛾幼虫有较好的防治潜力,可用于斜纹夜蛾的生物防治中。     

垂丝海棠应对盐碱复合胁迫的生理响应

盐碱复合胁迫是影响植物生长的主要环境因子。为了探究垂丝海棠（Malus halliana Koehen）响应盐碱复合胁迫的生理特性,利用主成分分析法明确耐盐碱阈值,以2年生垂丝海棠苗为试材,将NaCl与NaHCO₃按1：1的比例混合,通过盆栽浇灌Hogland营养液的方法,模拟5种不同浓度（0、50、100、150、200 mmol/L）盐碱复合胁迫对其光合色素、光合参数、叶绿素荧光参数及渗透调节物质的影响,并对其相关指标进行相关性和主成分分析。结果表明,随着胁迫强度的增大,叶绿素（Chl T）合成受阻,净光合速率（P_n）、气孔导度（G_s）、蒸腾速率（T_r）、胞间CO₂浓度（C_i）、叶片含水量（WC）下降,最大光化学效率（F_v/F_m）、表观光合电子传递速率（ETR）、PSⅡ实际化学效率（φPSⅡ）、光化学猝灭系数（qP）被抑制;类胡萝卜素（Car）含量、水分利用效率（WUE）、电解质外渗率、非调节性能量耗散（Y（NO））升高;胁迫40 d时,初始荧光（F₀）显著升高,而调节性能量耗散Y（NPQ）、非光化学荧光淬灭系数（qN）急剧降低;脯氨酸、可溶性糖、有机酸显著积累,并在100 mmol/L浓度下达到峰值。植株的P_n与G_s、C_i、ETR、φPSⅡ呈极显著正相关,与T_r、WC、qP、Chl T呈显著正相关,与电导率、脯氨酸、Y（NO）呈显著负相关。因此,盐碱复合胁迫下,垂丝海棠叶片主要通过降低G_s、C_i、T_r、WC,提高WUE、大量积累渗透调节物质、启动热耗散机制来保持光合系统伤害与修复的动态平衡。根据主成分分析法,浓度100 mmol/L为耐盐碱阈值,同时G_s、C_i、T_r、Chl T、ETR、φPSⅡ、Y（NO）、WC、qP、电解质渗透率、脯氨酸可作为评价垂丝海棠耐盐碱能力的有效指标。     

红芽芋驯化苗对盐胁迫的光合及生理响应

为探讨江西铅山红芽芋的耐盐机制,以其组培移栽驯化苗为材料,研究了盐胁迫对其生物量积累、光合特性、荧光特性等抗逆生理特性的影响。结果表明:（1）红芽芋幼苗生物量和根冠比在低盐胁迫下（50 mmol·L^-1）得到显著促进,而在高盐胁迫下（100～250 mmol·L^-1）受到显著抑制。（2）低盐胁迫幼苗的净光合速率（P_n）、气孔导度（G_s）、气孔限制值（L_s）、水分利用效率（WUE）和瞬时羧化效率（CUE）比对照（0 mmol·L^-1）显著增加,细胞间CO₂浓度（C_i）比对照显著下降,蒸腾速率（T_r）与对照无显著差异;高盐胁迫幼苗的P_n、L_s、WUE、CUE和G_s较对照显著下降,C_i比对照显著增加。（3）低盐胁迫幼苗的最大荧光（F_m）、PSⅡ潜在光化学效率（F_v/F₀）和光化学猝灭系数（q_P）比对照显著增加,初始荧光（F₀）较对照显著下降,PSⅡ最大光化学效率（F_v/F_m）、PSⅡ实际光化学效率（Φ_PSⅡ）、开放的PSⅡ反应中心捕获激发能效率（F_v′/F_m′）和非光化学猝灭系数（NPQ）与对照无显著差异;而高盐胁迫幼苗的F₀、F_m、F_v/F_m、F_v/F₀、Φ_PSⅡ、F_v′/F_m′和q_P均较对照显著下降,NPQ比对照显著增加。（4）各盐胁迫幼苗叶片的可溶性蛋白含量以及过氧化物酶、超氧化物歧化酶和过氧化氢酶活性与对照相比先升后降,并以低盐下最高;可溶性总糖和脯氨酸含量均比对照显著增加;丙二醛含量和质膜透性相对值在低盐胁迫下无显著变化,而在高盐下显著增加;叶绿素含量和根系活力在低盐胁迫下无显著变化,而在高盐胁迫后开始显著下降。研究发现,江西铅山红芽芋移栽驯化苗的耐盐阈值为 50 mmol·L^-1,其能够诱导提高叶片可溶性蛋白含量和主要保护酶活性,稳定质膜透性、叶绿素含量和根系活力,增加PSⅡ潜在光化学效率,提高PSⅡ的电子传递活性,维持PSⅡ实际光化学效率,有效启动非辐射热能量耗散机制来保护了光合机构,最终提高净光合速率,增加生物量。     

3种无脊椎动物对近江牡蛎Crassostrea ariakensis和熊本牡蛎C. sikamea的捕食研究

捕食是影响牡蛎种群建立和牡蛎礁发育的重要生物因子之一。通过室内受控实验测定了日本蟳（Charybdis japonica）、脉红螺（Rapana venosa）和黄口荔枝螺（Thais luteostoma）对4组规格（W1：壳高10-20mm;W2：壳高20-30mm;W3：壳高30-40mm;W4：壳高>40mm）近江牡蛎（Crassostrea ariakensis）和熊本牡蛎（C.sikamea）的捕食偏好性和捕食效率。双因子方差分析结果表明,日本蟳对2种牡蛎的捕食效率没有显著性差异（P>0.05）,但牡蛎规格大小显著影响着日本蟳的捕食效率（P<0.05）,即日本蟳对W1组近江牡蛎的捕食效率显著高于W2和W4组（P<0.05）,W3组的被捕食效率介于中间（P>0.05）;日本蟳对W1组熊本牡蛎的捕食效率显著高于W2和W3组（P<0.05）,W4组的被捕食效率与其他处理组均没有显著性差异（P>0.05）。牡蛎种类（P=0.590）和规格大小（P=0.357）对脉红螺的捕食效率均无显著性影响,不同规格的两种牡蛎均呈现较低的被捕食效率。黄口荔枝螺对2种牡蛎的捕食效率无显著性差异（P=0.917）,但牡蛎规格大小显著影响其捕食效率（P=0.035）,即对W1组熊本牡蛎捕食效率显著高于其他3个规格组（P<0.05）,但其对不同规格近江牡蛎的捕食效率没有显著性差异（P>0.05）。2种牡蛎的壳厚与其壳高之间均存在极显著的正相关关系（P<0.001）。研究结果表明,3种无脊椎动物捕食者对近江牡蛎和熊本牡蛎并未表现出差异性的捕食偏好,但对不同规格牡蛎的捕食效率具有种间差异。     

干旱及复水条件下外源褪黑素对玉米叶片光合作用的影响

为探究干旱胁迫及复水后外源褪黑素对玉米叶片光合作用的影响和调控机制。以玉米陕单609盆栽苗为试验材料,叶面喷施褪黑素100 μmol/L在重度干旱和复水后分别测定了生物量、净光合速率（P_n）以及光合电子传递速率等指标。结果显示：外源褪黑激素可减轻干旱胁迫引起的生长抑制;外源褪黑激素处理的植株表现出比未处理植株更高的P_n、气孔导度（G_s）以及更低的胞间CO₂浓度（C_i）;外源褪黑素增加了干旱胁迫下OJIP曲线的荧光参数φ_P0、φ_E0、ψ₀以及光合性能指数PI_abs;外源褪黑素也提高了干旱胁迫下叶片PSⅡ和PSI有效量子产量[Y（Ⅱ）,Y（I）];也增加了干旱胁迫下叶片的PSⅡ和PSI电子传递速率（ETRⅡ,ETRI）,但降低了干旱胁迫下叶片PSI受体侧限制[Y（NA）]和供体侧限制[Y（ND）]。表明外源褪黑素对干旱胁迫下光抑制具有一定的缓解作用。复水后,干旱胁迫下褪黑素处理玉米叶片各参数都恢复到对照水平;而干旱胁迫处理玉米叶片各参数复水后不能完全恢复。可见,喷施褪黑素不仅缓解干旱胁迫对玉米PSⅡ和PSI结构和功能的损伤,而且能加速复水后光合机构功能的恢复,促进玉米植株恢复性生长。因此喷施褪黑素加强玉米叶片光合作用适应干旱环境是一种重要的调控方式。     

根深决定不同个体大小梭梭对夏季干旱生理响应的差异

理解干旱与树木个体发育阶段或大小之间的相互作用关系是一个重要的优先研究方向,因为依赖于个体大小的特定死亡率分布格局对生态系统的结构和功能将产生重要的影响。以广泛分布于古尔班通古特沙漠南缘的主要建群种梭梭（Haloxylon ammodendron）为研究对象,通过测定越夏生长期间不同个体大小梭梭黎明前同化枝水势（Ψ_pd）、压力-容积（P-V）曲线、最大气孔导度（G_s）、叶绿素荧光（F_v/F_m）,调查不同个体大小梭梭根系分布特征和根深,将越夏生长期间土壤水分状况、植物生理性状与根深相结合,分析不同大小梭梭对干旱胁迫的响应差异。结果表明：（1）夏季干旱胁迫显著降低了梭梭幼苗生理性状的特征值：同成年植株相比,梭梭幼苗黎明前同化枝水势（Ψ_pd）、PSⅡ反应中心最大光化学效率（F_v/F_m）、饱和膨压渗透势（π₁₀₀）、膨压消失点渗透势（Ψ_TLP）显著降低;（2）梭梭生理性状与根深之间存在线性关系,根深决定不同大小梭梭的水分状况（Ψ_pd）进而主导了越夏生长期间的其他生理性状表达（F_v/F_m、π₁₀₀、Ψ_TLP）;（3）不同大小的梭梭对干旱胁迫的响应差异是植物根系分布特征和生境相互作用的结果,根深在梭梭应对夏季干旱胁迫中起重要作用。总之,梭梭幼苗根系发育不完全（浅根系）,只能利用降水带来的有限的浅层土壤水,对干旱胁迫响应敏感;而成年梭梭植株能最大限度的利用深层土壤水分,减少表层土壤干旱对其产生的不利影响。     

Effect of meal size on excess post-exercise oxygen consumption in fishes with different locomotive and digestive performance

Effects of feeding on pre-exercise VO₂ and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) after exhaustive exercise were investigated in sedentary southern catfish, active herbivorous grass carp, omnivorous crucian carp, and sluggish omnivorous darkbarbel catfish to test whether feeding had different effects on EPOC and to compare EPOC in fishes with different ecological habits. For fasting fish, the pre-exercise and peak post-exercise VO₂ were higher and recovery rates were faster in crucian carp and grass carp compared to those of darkbarbel catfish and southern catfish. EPOC magnitudes of grass carp and southern catfish were significantly larger than those of crucian carp and darkbarbel catfish. Feeding had no significant effect on peak post-exercise VO₂, recovery rate, and EPOC magnitude in grass carp. Both the pre-exercise and peak post-exercise VO₂ increased with meal size, while the EPOC magnitude and duration decreased significantly in the larger meal size groups of crucian carp and southern catfish. In darkbarbel catfish, both the pre-exercise and peak post-exercise VO₂ increased with meal size, but the VO₂ increment elicited by exercise was larger in feeding groups compared with the fasting group. These results suggest that (1) the characteristics of the post-exercise VO₂ profile, such as peak post-exercise VO₂ and recovery rate, were closely related to the activity of fishes, whereas the EPOC magnitude was not and (2) the effects of feeding on EPOC were more closely related to the postprandial increase in VO₂.     

Morphology,performance, fitness: functional insight into a post-Pleistocene radiation of mosquitofish

Bahamas mosquitofish (Gambusia hubbsi) colonized blue holes during the past approximately 15 000 years and exhibit relatively larger caudal regions in blue holes that contain piscivorous fish. It is hypothesized that larger caudal regions enhance fast-start escape performance and thus reflect an adaptation for avoiding predation. Here I test this hypothesis using a three-pronged, experimental approach. First, G. hubbsi from blue holes with predators were found to possess both greater fast-start performance and greater survivorship in the presence of predatory fish. Second, using individual-level data to investigate the morphology–performance–fitness pathway, I found that (i) fish with larger caudal regions produced higher fast-start performance and (ii) fish with higher fast-start performance enjoyed greater survivorship in the presence of fish predators—trends consistently observed across both predator regimes. Finally, I found that morphological divergence between predator regimes at least partially reflects genetic differentiation, as differences were retained in fish raised in a common laboratory environment. These results suggest that natural selection favours increased fast-start performance in the presence of piscivorous fish, consequently driving the evolution of larger caudal regions. Combined with previous work, this provides functional insight into body shape divergence and ecological speciation among Bahamian blue holes.     

Predator recognition and defence strategies in crucian carp, Carassius carassius

Crucian carp from populations that lack piscivores are extremely vulnerable to predation. However, in the presence of piscivores these fish develop an inducible morphological defence, a deep body. This switch from a vulnerable, shallow-bodied morph to a morphologically defended morph makes this species very suitable for investigations of anti-predator strategies, and trade-offs between morphological and behavioural defences. To address these questions, we performed eight different experiments. We found that crucian carp exhibited fright responses to chemical cues from unfamiliar predators (northern pike, perch) when these were fed prey that contained alarm substance (for northern pike: crucian carp, roach; for perch: crucian carp). Cues from small pike that were fed prey that lacked alarm substance (swordtails) caused no significant fright response whereas cues from larger pike with the same diet did. Perch on a chironomid diet elicited weaker but significant fright responses. Starved predators caused as strong fright reactions as recently fed ones did, whereas no response was exhibited towards nonpredatory fish (roach, crucian carp). Crucian carp were able to detect the presence of pike after cues had been diluted to an equivalent of 21 000 l, and larger predators elicited stronger fright responses. Prior experience of predators decreased fright responses. In particular, individuals from populations that coexisted with northern pike responded less to chemical cues from northern pike than individuals without prior experience did. Thus, crucian carp may use both alarm-substance related and predator-related cues to identify predators. Further, they were able to discriminate between large and small predators. Finally, individuals from populations that coexist with predators exhibit less pronounced fright responses. These fish have an induced morphological defence, a deep body, which most likely decreases the need for strong antipredator behaviour.     

A laboratory study of the effects of shelter availability and invasive crayfish on the growth of native stream fish

1. The alteration of stream habitats by urbanisation reduces the availability of shelter. Reduced shelter availability may increase both predation risks and metabolic costs, negatively affecting the growth performance of stream fish. Although urbanised streams often allow the establishment of invasive species, the additive or interactive effects of shelter availability and invasive species are rarely explored. The invasive red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) is a strong shelter competitor and predator in streams. 2. We conducted a stream‐channel experiment to investigate how shelter availability and this invasive crayfish species affect the growth performance (measured as the loss in body mass under starved conditions) of two native benthic species, Japanese crucian carp (Carassius auratus complex) and an endangered cobitid fish (Lefua echigonia). 3. We found that both the absence of shelter and the presence of crayfish increased body mass loss in the crucian carp. However, the growth performance of the crucian carp was improved by the presence of shelter except in the presence of crayfish, in which case the shelter available did not ameliorate the negative effect of the crayfish on growth performance (i.e. an interactive effect). This result suggests that crayfish may affect the growth performance of the crucian carp through chemical cues as well as through shelter occupancy. 4. In contrast, shelter availability is the primary factor affecting the body mass loss of the cobitid fish. However, the growth performance of these fish was unaffected by the presence of crayfish. The change in the growth performance of the cobitid fish in response to the absence of shelter was greater than that of the crucian carp. This finding suggests that the cobitid fish may be more vulnerable than the crucian carp to a reduction in shelter availability. 5. Our study demonstrates that reduced shelter availability and/or crayfish invasion can have significant, indirect negative effects on the growth performance of native fish, but whether those effects are interactive might vary depending on the species. Our findings have clear implications for stream restoration and habitat assessment.     

Past and Present Risk: Exposure to Predator Chemical Cues Before and after Metamorphosis Influences Juvenile Wood Frog Behavior

Animals are exposed to different predators over their lifespan. This raises the question of whether exposure to predation risk in an early life stage affects the response to predators in subsequent life stages. In this study, we used wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) to test whether exposure to cues indicating predation risk from dragonfly larvae during the wood frog larval stage affected post‐metamorphic activity level and avoidance of garter snake chemical cues. Dragonfly larvae prey upon wood frogs only during the larval stage, whereas garter snakes prey upon wood frogs during both the larval stage and the post‐metamorphic stage. Exposure to predation risk from dragonflies during the larval stage caused post‐metamorphic wood frog juveniles to have greater terrestrial activity than juvenile wood frogs that were not exposed to larval‐stage predation risk from dragonflies. However, exposure to predation risk as larvae did not affect juvenile wood frog responses to chemical cues from garter snakes. Wood frogs exposed as larvae to predation risk from dragonfly larvae avoided garter snake chemical cues to the same extent as wood frog larvae not exposed to predation risk from dragonfly larvae. Our results demonstrate that while some general behaviors exhibit carry‐over effects from earlier life stages, behavioral responses to predators may remain independent of conditions experienced in earlier life stages.     

Difference in the hypoxia tolerance of the round crucian carp and largemouth bass: implications for physiological refugia in the macrophyte zone

The hypoxia tolerance of larval and juvenile round crucian carp, Carassius auratus grandoculis, and largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, was determined using respirometry to examine the potential of hypoxic areas in the macrophyte zone as physiological refugia for round crucian carp. The tolerance, which was measured as the critical oxygen concentration (Pc), was 1.32 mg O₂/l in the round crucian carp and 1.93 mg O₂/l in the largemouth bass. As the round crucian carp tolerated hypoxia better than the largemouth bass, hypoxic areas in the macrophyte zone might function as physiological refugia for round crucian carp.     

Susceptibility of Prussian carp infected by metacercariae of Posthodiplostomum cuticola (v. Nordmann, 1832) to fish predation

The susceptibility of prey fish infected by metacercariae of Posthodiplostomum cuticola (Digenea: Diplostomatidae) to the predation of non-host predators under experimental conditions was investigated. Parasitized young-of-the-year Prussian carp Carassius auratus were consumed significantly more often by perch Perca fluviatilis compared to non-parasitized individuals, independent of Prussian carp density. The proportion of parasitized and non-parasitized fish consumed by the predator remained stable at four different prey densities. The probability of predation did not increase with the intensity of parasite infection. The effect of P. cuticola on the host seems to result mostly from pathological changes (poor condition, black spots). However, our results provide evidence of higher probability of parasitized Prussian carp being consumed by fish predators under experimental conditions.     

Pugnose eels, Simenchelys parasiticus (Synaphobranchidae) from the heart of a shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrinchus (Lamnidae)

The body depth of crucian carp, Carassius carassius, increases in the presence of predator fish, thereby decreasing the vulnerability of crucian carp to predation. This phenotypic change is mediated by chemical signals, and is believed to result from a piscivorous diet of predators. We have shown that exposure to a piscivorous predator is insufficient to induce growth changes in crucian carp, since water from northern pike, Esox lucius, fed Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus, does not induce a change in crucian carp morphology, while water from pike fed crucian carp does. The determining factor is a chemical signal from the skin of crucian carp, as demonstrated by exposure to skin extracts from conspecifics. We suggest that alarm substances from conspecifics, expressing primer pheromone effects, are the most likely candidates for induction of the phenotypical changes.     

The Diel Activity of Crucian Carp, Carassius Carassius, in Relation to Chemical Cues from Predators

Chemical cues from piscivorous fish and prey alarm substances often cause rapid fright responses in prey. However little is known of how piscivore-related chemical cues affect prey behaviour over periods longer than a few hours. Here we have investigated how chemical cues from piscivorous northern pike, Esox lucius, affect habitat choice and diel activity of crucian carp, Carassius carassius, over an extended period 11 days. At the beginning of the experiment control fish were nocturnal while fish in the pike cue treatment were aperiodic. After 11 days, control fish had become more strongly nocturnal and displayed two activity peaks during early and late night whereas fish in the pike cue treatment were still aperiodic with no activity peaks. Habitat choice was aperiodic in both treatments throughout the experiment. In both treatments, more fish were found in the vegetation zone than in the open habitat. This was most pronounced when pike cues were present. These results demonstrate that short-term anti-predator responses to chemical cues from predators can translate into long-term adjustments of diel periodicity. Further, the results did not support the idea that crucian carp should switch to nocturnal activity in response to visually hunting predators. Control fish were nocturnal and chemical cues from pike did not make this pattern more pronounced.