重组荞麦胰蛋白酶抑制剂对人肝癌细胞的凋亡及半胱氨酸天冬酶活性的影响

先前的研究表明,基因重组荞麦胰蛋白酶抑制剂 (rBTI) 具有诱导不同肿瘤细胞凋亡的作用.为了揭示其诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡的可能机理,从基因水平上探讨与凋亡有关的分子事件,本研究用不同浓度的 rBTI 体外作用于人肝癌细胞 HepG2 后,采用 MTT 比色法检测抑制剂对epG2 细胞的抑制率,用 DNA 凝胶电泳和细胞核的形态学观察检测 HepG2 细胞的凋亡.结果表明,rBTI 在体外能够明显抑制 HepG2 细胞的增长,并诱导细胞凋亡.另外,细胞凋亡与Bcl-2/Bax mRNA 水平有关.通过 RT-PCR 检测发现,细胞经过rBTI处理后,抗凋亡基因Bcl-2 mRNA 水平下调,促凋亡基因 Bax mRNA 有所上调,而对照 GAPDH 无变化.对 HepG2细胞中 Fas/Fas 配体及半胱氨酸天冬酶（caspase）的研究证明,细胞经过 rBTI 处理后,对死亡受体 Fas mRNA没有影响; rBTI 可明显激活caspase-3 和 caspase-9 酶活性, 对caspase-8 活性几乎无影响.上述结果表明,rBTI 对HepG2 细胞具有明显的诱导凋亡作用,其诱导细胞凋亡的机制与 caspase-3 依赖性凋亡调节信号通路有关,未涉及 Fas/Fas 配体途径.     

Desmosdumotin-C A环衍生物TEP诱导HL-60细胞凋亡作用机制研究

本研究主要探讨毛叶假鹰爪素C(Desmosdumotin C)A环衍生物TEP诱导人急性白血病HL-60细胞凋亡作用及机制。流式细胞技术检测TEP诱导细胞凋亡及其对凋亡细胞中Fas、Fas L、Bax、Bcl-2表达率的影响,透射电镜观察凋亡细胞形态学改变。结果显示40μg/m L TEP作用细胞24 h后,细胞可呈现典型的凋亡形态学变化;40μg/m L TEP可明显提高凋亡细胞中Fas、Fas L、Bax的表达(P0.05),并可明显降低抗凋亡细胞Bcl-2的表达(P0.05)。以上实验结果表明毛叶假鹰爪素C(Desmosdumotin C,Des C)A环衍生物TEP可有效地诱导HL-60细胞凋亡,其作用机制可能与上调Fas、Fas L、Bax表达以及下调Bcl-2表达有关。     

凋亡信号调节激酶1对细胞凋亡的调节作用

细胞存活与凋亡之间的平衡是多细胞生物正常发育与稳态的关键。细胞凋亡是受多种因素高度调控的细胞程序性死亡过程。凋亡信号调节激酶 1 (ASK1 )是促分裂原活化蛋白激酶激酶激酶家族的成员之一 ,它分别激活SER1 JNK和MKK3 MKK6 p38途径 ,在细胞因子及应激诱导细胞凋亡过程中起着关键作用。TNF受体和Fas信号转导系统在抗凋亡与促凋亡过程中发挥重要作用 ,其中包括TNF受体Ⅰ相关死亡域蛋白 (TRADD)、Fas相关死亡域蛋白 (FADD)等多种蛋白因子。细胞色素C是线粒体依赖性死亡信号 ,受Bcl 2家族蛋白的调节。反应性氧化合物的氧化激活使硫氧还蛋白 (Trx)氧化 ,并与ASK1分离 ,从而激活ASK1造成细胞凋亡。总之 ,许多促凋亡与抗凋亡因子组成复杂的、相互拮抗的机制。在信号转导的各种不同的关卡上 ,这些因子的平衡作用最终决定细胞的生与死。     

利用单分子荧光成像技术研究十字孢碱诱导细胞凋亡过程中糖原合成酶激酶-3β促进Bax转位

糖原合成酶激酶-3β (glycogen synthase kinase-3β,GSK-3β)除了在抑制糖原合成中的重要作用外,越来越多的研究表明它是细胞凋亡过程中的一个关键信号调节蛋白.然而,在细胞凋亡过程中它调节的主要下游促凋亡蛋白依然不明确,尤其是Bcl-2家族的促凋亡蛋白(Bax是其中最重要的蛋白之一).通过对GSK-3β和Bax两种蛋白进行荧光标记,在单分子水平上研究了十字孢碱(staurosperine,STS)诱导人肺腺癌细胞(ASTC-α-1)凋亡过程中,GSK-3β活化与Bax转位之间的关系.实验结果表明STS诱导ASTC-α-1凋亡过程中,共转染pCFP-Bax和 pYFP-GSK-3β的细胞发生凋亡的时间明显早于单转染 pYFP-Bax的细胞,并且Bax发牛转位的时间也明显提前.这些结果显示在STS这种凋亡因素刺激下,GSK-3β可以通过促进Bax转位从而加速细胞凋亡.这是单分子荧光成像技术研究活细胞内分子事件的又一个重要应用.     

实时监测溶酶体光损伤诱导细胞凋亡过程中Bax定位的时空变化

光敏剂N-aspartyl chlorin e6 (NPe6)能特异性定位于溶酶体,溶酶体光损伤光能触发线粒体凋亡通路从而诱导细胞凋亡.Bax是Bcl-2家族一员,是调控细胞凋亡的关键因子之一.静息态下,Bax定位于细胞质中;而在细胞凋亡过程中,Bax会从细胞质转位到线粒体,损伤线粒体,从而启动细胞凋亡.在本研究中,我们在活细胞内实时监控溶酶体光损伤诱导细胞凋亡过程中Bax亚细胞定位的动态变化.结果表明,溶酶体光损伤后约170 min,Bax开始转位到线粒体,在30 min之内便大量聚集在线粒体上.该研究结果实时动态地展示了细胞凋亡过程中Bax的时空变化过程.     

细胞凋亡中的Bcl-2家族蛋白及其BH3结构域的功能研究

凋亡相关蛋白中的Bcl-2家族是细胞凋亡的关键调节分子,由抗凋亡和促凋亡成员组成,这些成员之间通过相互协同作用调节了线粒体结构与功能的稳定性,从而在线粒体水平发挥着细胞凋亡的“开关”作用.抗凋亡成员大都分布于线粒体的外膜,与促凋亡成员的BH3结构域相互作用对细胞凋亡发挥抵抗作用.促凋亡成员则主要分布于细胞浆中,细胞接受死亡信号刺激后,促凋亡成员自身受到一系列的调节,如典型的Bax构象改变、BAD和Bik的磷酸化调节以及Bid和Bim的蛋白裂解效应等,使得促凋亡成员在凋亡信号的刺激下整合于线粒体外膜,最终导致线粒体通透转换孔的开放,进而释放包括细胞色素c、凋亡诱导因子、Smac等重要的凋亡因子,随后caspase被激活进而断裂重要的细胞内结构蛋白与功能分子,执行细胞凋亡.     

实时分析UV诱导的细胞凋亡过程中Bax的转位

Bax(Bcl-2-associated X protein)是bcl-2家族中的一个很重要的促凋亡蛋白,在正常的细胞生理状态下,主要分布在细胞质,在UV等凋亡刺激因子的作用下,则从细胞质转位到线粒体从而诱导细胞色素C的释放,最终引起细胞凋亡。缺失Bax的细胞对UV诱导的细胞凋亡有抗性,因此研究Bax的特性有助于深入了解UV诱导的细胞凋亡信号转导通路的分子机制。以前的研究大都采用生化的手段,无法在活细胞上实时动态的观察Bax蛋白的变化过程。运用激光共聚焦扫描显微成像技术单细胞实时检测了UV诱导的细胞凋亡过程中Bax的动态变化过程。研究结果表明:UV诱导的细胞凋亡过程中Bax的转位大约起始于UV照射后5 h-6 h,整个转位过程持续20 min-30 min。     

金花茶种子诱导人子宫颈癌HelaS3细胞凋亡及其作用机理的研究

为探讨金花茶种子诱导人子宫颈癌HelaS3细胞凋亡的机制,以不同浓度金花茶种子乙醇提取物的正丁醇萃取物处理人子宫颈癌HelaS3细胞后,分别采用流式细胞仪、Western印记法等检测对细胞凋亡及Bax、Bcl 2、Bid等表达的影响。结果表明：金花茶种子乙醇提取物的正丁醇萃取物作用于人子宫颈癌HelaS3细胞后,细胞凋亡增加,Bax蛋白表达提高,Bcl 2蛋白表达降低,Bid蛋白活性减弱,线粒体膜电位下降及Caspase 8,Caspase 3活性增强。金花茶种子乙醇提取物的正丁醇萃取物为其重要的抗肿瘤活性有效部位,并可能通过激活Bax及Caspase 3,Caspase 8,抑制Bcl 2和Bid来诱导HelaS3细胞凋亡。     

利用荧光共振能量转移技术在活细胞内研究顺铂诱导的凋亡信号通路

为在活细胞内探讨顺铂诱导的凋亡通路．实验样品经顺铂处理后,应用基于荧光共振能量转移(FRET)原理设计的荧光探针pFRET-Bid和pSCAT-3来检测Bid切割和Capase-3活化的动态变化,同时,利用荧光成像在亚细胞水平对Bid转位线粒体的动力学特征进行了实时分析．结果表明：在顺铂诱导的细胞凋亡过程中,Bid切割发生在药物刺激后4～5 h, 历时(120±20) min．Bid切割活化后即从胞浆内转位到线粒体,历时(90±15) min．在凋亡后期,可以明显检测到Caspase-3 的激活．研究表明,应用FRET及荧光成像技术,可以在活细胞内实时、直观、可视地研究顺铂诱导的细胞凋亡过程,从而客观地反映了Bid、Caspase-3等蛋白质分子在该凋亡信号通路中的动态行为及时空传递特性．     

FAS/ActD通过线粒体途径引起细胞阻滞诱导人宫颈癌HeLa细胞凋亡

为了探讨FAS抗体与放线菌素D(actinomycin D,ActD)联合作用诱导人宫颈癌HeLa细胞凋亡的分子机制,通过MTT法检测细胞活力,利用流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡和细胞周期,从而研究FAS/ActD抑制细胞增殖的作用. 结果表明,FAS/ActD能明显降低HeLa细胞的活力,并且通过G1/G0期阻滞和S期阻滞诱导HeLa细胞凋亡. 此外,Western印迹分析进一步显示,FAS/ActD还能引起Bcl-2蛋白表达降低, Bax蛋白表达增加,Bid蛋白发生断裂激活,导致细胞质中Cyto-c释放的增加,并激活在细胞凋亡的执行过程中起着关键作用的caspase 9和caspase 3. 以上结果提示,FAS抗体与ActD的联合作用可能经线粒体途径引起细胞周期阻滞,从而诱导HeLa细胞凋亡. 该研究为宫颈癌的免疫治疗提供了新的思路.     

A role for mitochondrial Bak in apoptotic response to anticancer drugs.

In the present study a clonal Jurkat cell line deficient in expression of Bak was used to analyze the role of Bak in cytochrome c release from mitochondria. The Bak-deficient T leukemic cells were resistant to apoptosis induced by UV, staurosporin, VP-16, bleomycin, or cisplatin. In contrast to wild type Jurkat cells, these Bak-deficient cells did not respond to UV or treatment with these anticancer drugs by membranous phosphatidylserine exposure, DNA breaks, activation of caspases, or release of mitochondrial cytochrome c. The block in the apoptotic cascade was in the mitochondrial mechanism for cytochrome c release because purified mitochondria from Bak-deficient cells failed to release cytochrome c or apoptosis-inducing factor in response to recombinant Bax or truncated Bid. The resistance of Bak-deficient cells to VP-16 was reversed by transduction of the Bak gene into these cells. Also, the cytochrome c releasing capability of the Bak-deficient mitochondria was restored by insertion of recombinant Bak protein into purified mitochondria. Following mitochondrial localization, low dose recombinant Bak restored the mitochondrial release of cytochrome c in response to Bax; at increased doses it induced cytochrome c release itself. The function of Bak is independent of Bid and Bax because recombinant Bak induced cytochrome c release from mitochondria purified from Bax(-/-), Bid(-/-), or Bid(-/-) Bax(-/-) mice. Together, our findings suggest that Bak plays a key role in the apoptotic machinery of cytochrome c release and thus in the chemoresistance of human T leukemic cells.     

Regulation of intracellular pH mediates Bax activation in HeLa cells treated with staurosporine or tumor necrosis factor-alpha

Induction of apoptosis in HeLa cells with staurosporine produced a rise in the intracellular pH (pH(i)). Intracellular alkalinization was accompanied by translocation of Bax to the mitochondria, cytochrome c release, and cell death. The chloride channel inhibitor furosemide prevented intracellular alkalinization, Bax translocation, cytochrome c release, and cell death. Translocation of full-length Bid to the mitochondria was also prevented by furosemide. The cleavage product of Bid degradation (truncated Bid, tBid) was not detectable in the mitochondria. Its accumulation in the cytosol was prevented by furosemide. Apoptosis induced by tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) lowered pH(i), an effect also accompanied by Bax translocation, cytochrome c release, and cell killing. Furosemide prevented all of these events. TNF induced a depletion of full-length Bid from the mitochondria and the cytosol but induced an accumulation of mitochondrial tBid. Furosemide only delayed full-length Bid depletion and tBid accumulation. The caspase 8 inhibitor IETD did not prevent the translocation of Bax. Although IETD did inhibit the cleavage of Bid and the accumulation of tBid, cell killing was reduced only slightly. It is concluded that with either staurosporine or TNF a furosemide-sensitive change in pH(i) is linked to Bax translocation, cytochrome c release, and cell killing. With TNF Bax translocation occurs as Bid is depleted and can be dissociated from the accumulation of tBid. With staurosporine a role for full-length Bid in Bax translocation cannot be excluded but is not necessary as evidenced by the data with TNF.     

Tumor necrosis factor alpha induced by Trypanosoma cruzi infection mediates inflammation and cell death in the liver of infected mice

Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) infected C57BL/6 mice developed a progressive fatal disease due to an imbalance in the profile of circulating related compounds accompanying infection like tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα). TNFα has been proposed as an important effector molecule in apoptosis. In this work, we evaluate inflammation and the proteins involved in apoptotic process in liver of infected mice and the role of TNFα. C57BL6/mice were infected subcutaneously with 100 viable trypomastigotes of Tulahuén strain of T cruzi. One set of these animals were treated with 375 μg of antihuman TNFα blocking antibody. Animals were sacrificed at 14 days post-infection (p.i).The analyses of Bcl-2 family proteins revealed an increase of the pro-apoptotic proteins Bax and tBid in T. cruzi-infected mice. Compared with control animals, cytochrome c release was increased. Apoptosis was also induced in infected mice. Anti-TNFα treatment decreases hepatic apoptosis. Our results suggest that T. cruzi infection induces programmed cell death in the host liver by increase of TNFα production, associated with TNF-R1 over-expression, that set in motion the Bid cleavage and mitochondrial translocation, Bax mitochondrial translocation, cytochrome c release, and ultimately apoptosis induction.     

Activation of pro-death Bcl-2 family proteins and mitochondria apoptosis pathway in tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced liver injury

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha)-induced cytotoxicity contributes to the pathogenesis in inflammatory and immune responses. Here, we studied the role of pro-death Bcl-2 family proteins and the mitochondria apoptosis pathway in the development of TNFalpha-induced hepatic injury during endotoxemia. After treating mice with lipopolysaccharide or TNFalpha in the presence of d-galactosamine, Bid was cleaved and translocated to mitochondria in hepatocytes. Independently, Bax was also activated by the death receptor engagement and translocated to mitochondria. However, its subsequent insertion into the mitochondrial membrane depends on Bid. Nevertheless, Bid was required, but Bax could be dispensed for the mitochondrial release of cytochrome c from mitochondria, suggesting that Bid could activate additional downstream molecules other than Bax. The lack of this Bid-dependent mitochondria activation and cytochrome c release in the bid-deficient mice was responsible for the significantly delayed effector caspase activation and hepatocyte injury upon endotoxin treatment, culminating in a prolonged survival of the bid-deficient mice. Additional genetic factor(s) could further modify the dependence of TNFalpha toxicity on the mitochondria pathway as the bid-deficient 129/SvJ mice manifested an even higher resistance than the same type of mice in C57BL/6 background. The functional significance of the mitochondria apoptosis pathway was thus elucidated in the TNFalpha-mediated pathogenesis in vivo.     

Role of acidic sphingomyelinase in Fas/CD95-mediated cell death

Engagement of the Fas receptor has been reported to induce ceramide generation via activation of acidic sphingomyelinase (aSMase). However, the role of aSMase in Fas-mediated cell death is controversial. Using genetically engineered mice deficient in the aSMase gene (aSMase(-/-)), we found that thymocytes, concanavalin A-activated T cells, and lipopolysaccharide-activated B cells derived from both aSMase(-/-) and aSMase(+/+) mice were equally sensitive to Fas-mediated cell death, triggered by either anti-Fas antibody or Fas ligand in vitro. Similarly, activation-induced apoptosis of T lymphocytes was unaffected by the status of aSMase, and aSMase(-/-) mice failed to show immunological symptoms seen in animals with defects in Fas function. In vivo, intravenous injection of 3 microg/25 g mouse body weight of anti-Fas Jo2 antibody into aSMase(-/-) mice failed to affect hepatocyte apoptosis or mortality, whereas massive hepatocyte apoptosis and animal death occurred in wild type littermates. Animals heterozygous for aSMase deficiency were also significantly protected. Susceptibility of aSMase(-/-) mice to anti-Fas antibody was demonstrated with higher antibody doses (>/=4 microg/25 g mouse). These data indicate a role for aSMase in Fas-mediated cell death in some but not all tissues.     

BH3-only activator proteins Bid and Bim are dispensable for Bak/Bax-dependent thrombocyte apoptosis induced by Bcl-xL deficiency: molecular requisites for the mitochondrial pathway to apoptosis in platelets

A pivotal step in the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is activation of Bak and Bax, although the molecular mechanism remains controversial. To examine whether mitochondrial apoptosis can be induced by just a lack of antiapoptotic Bcl-2-like proteins or requires direct activators of the BH3-only proteins including Bid and Bim, we studied the molecular requisites for platelet apoptosis induced by Bcl-xL deficiency. Severe thrombocytopenia induced by thrombocyte-specific Bcl-xL knock-out was fully rescued in a Bak and Bax double knock-out background but not with single knock-out of either one. In sharp contrast, deficiency of either Bid, Bim, or both did not alleviate thrombocytopenia in Bcl-xL knock-out mice. An in vitro study revealed that ABT-737, a Bad mimetic, induced platelet apoptosis in association with a conformational change of the amino terminus, translocation from the cytosol to mitochondria, and homo-oligomerization of Bax. ABT-737-induced Bax activation and apoptosis were also observed in Bid/Bim-deficient platelets. Human platelets, upon storage, underwent spontaneous apoptosis with a gradual decline of Bcl-xL expression despite a decrease in Bid and Bim expression. Apoptosis was attenuated in Bak/Bax-deficient or Bcl-xL-overexpressing platelets but not in Bid/Bim-deficient platelets upon storage. In conclusion, platelet lifespan is regulated by a fine balance between anti- and proapoptotic multidomain Bcl-2 family proteins. Despite residing in platelets, BH3-only activator proteins Bid and Bim are dispensable for Bax activation and mitochondrial apoptosis.     

Inhibition of Bid-induced apoptosis by Bcl-2. tBid insertion,Bax translocation,and Bax/Bak oligomerization suppressed

Bcl-2 family proteins are important regulators of apoptosis. They can be pro-apoptotic (e.g. Bid, Bax, and Bak) or anti-apoptotic (e.g. Bcl-2 and Bcl-x(L)). The current study examined Bid-induced apoptosis and its inhibition by Bcl-2. Transfection of Bid led to apoptosis in HeLa cells. In these cells, Bid was processed into active forms of truncated Bid or tBid. Following processing, tBid translocated to the membrane-bound organellar fraction. Bcl-2 co-transfection inhibited Bid-induced apoptosis but did not prevent Bid processing or tBid translocation. On the other hand, Bcl-2 blocked the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c in Bid-transfected cells, suggesting actions at the mitochondrial level. Alkaline treatment stripped off tBid from the membrane-bound organellar fraction of Bid plus Bcl-2-co-transfected cells, but not from cells transfected with only Bid, suggesting inhibition of tBid insertion into mitochondrial membranes by Bcl-2. Bcl-2 also prevented Bid-induced Bax translocation from cytosol to the membrane-bound organellar fraction. Finally, Bcl-2 diminished Bid-induced oligomerization of Bax and Bak within the membrane-bound organellar fraction, shown by cross-linking experiments. In conclusion, Bcl-2 inhibited Bid-induced apoptosis at the mitochondrial level by blocking cytochrome c release, without suppressing Bid processing or activation. Critical steps blocked by Bcl-2 included tBid insertion, Bax translocation, and Bax/Bak oligomerization in the mitochondrial membranes.     

The mitochondrial permeability transition augments Fas-induced apoptosis in mouse hepatocytes

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha receptor 1 and Fas recruit overlapping signaling pathways. To clarify the differences between tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha) and Fas pathways in hepatocyte apoptosis, primary mouse hepatocytes were treated with TNFalpha or an agonist anti-Fas antibody after infection with an adenovirus expressing an IkappaB superrepressor (Ad5IkappaB). Treatment with TNFalpha induced apoptosis in Ad5IkappaB-infected mouse hepatocytes, as we previously reported for rat hepatocytes. Ad5IkappaB plus anti-Fas antibody or actinomycin D plus anti-Fas antibody rapidly induced apoptosis, whereas anti-Fas antibody alone produced little cytotoxicity. The proteasome inhibitor (MG-132) and a dominant-negative mutant of nuclear factor-kappaB-inducing kinase also promoted TNFalpha- and Fas-mediated apoptosis. Expression of either crmA or a dominant-negative mutant of the Fas-associated death domain protein prevented TNFalpha- and Fas-mediated apoptosis. In addition, the caspase inhibitors, DEVD-cho and IETD-fmk, inhibited TNFalpha- and Fas-mediated apoptosis. In Ad5IkappaB-infected hepatocytes, caspases-3 and -8 were activated within 2 h after treatment with anti-Fas antibody or within 6 h after TNFalpha treatment. Confocal microscopy demonstrated onset of the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and mitochondrial depolarization by 2-3 h after anti-Fas antibody treatment and 8-10 h after TNFalpha treatment, followed by cytochrome c release. The combination of the MPT inhibitors, cyclosporin A, and trifluoperazine, protected Ad5IkappaB-infected hepatocytes from TNFalpha-mediated apoptosis. After anti-Fas antibody, cyclosporin A and trifluoperazine decreased cytochrome c release but did not prevent caspase-3 activation and cell-death. In conclusion, nuclear factor-kappaB activation protects mouse hepatocytes against both TNFalpha- and Fas-mediated apoptosis. TNFalpha and Fas recruit similar but nonidentical, pathways signaling apoptosis. The MPT is obligatory for TNFalpha-induced apoptosis. In Fas-mediated apoptosis, the MPT accelerates the apoptogenic events but is not obligatory for them.     

Coxiella burnetii induces apoptosis during early stage infection via a caspase-independent pathway in human monocytic THP-1 cells

The ability of Coxiella burnetii to modulate host cell death may be a critical factor in disease development. In this study, human monocytic THP-1 cells were used to examine the ability of C. burnetii Nine Mile phase II (NMII) to modulate apoptotic signaling. Typical apoptotic cell morphological changes and DNA fragmentation were detected in NMII infected cells at an early stage of infection. FACS analysis using Annexin-V-PI double staining showed the induction of a significant number of apoptotic cells at an early stage of NMII infection. Double staining of apoptotic cell DNA and intracellular C. burnetii indicates that NMII infected cells undergoing apoptosis. Interestingly, caspase-3 was not cleaved in NMII infected cells and the caspase-inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk did not prevent NMII induced apoptosis. Surprisingly, the caspase-3 downstream substrate PARP was cleaved in NMII infected cells. These results suggest that NMII induces apoptosis during an early stage of infection through a caspase-independent pathway in THP-1 cells. In addition, NMII-infected monocytes were unable to prevent exogenous staurosporine-induced apoptotic death. Western blot analysis indicated that NMII infection induced the translocation of AIF from mitochondria into the nucleus. Cytochrome c release and cytosol-to-mitochondrial translocation of the pore-forming protein Bax in NMII infected cells occurred at 24 h post infection. These data suggest that NMII infection induced caspase-independent apoptosis through a mechanism involving cytochrome c release, cytosol-to-mitochondrial translocation of Bax and nuclear translocation of AIF in THP-1 monocytes. Furthermore, NMII infection increased TNF-α production and neutralization of TNF-α in NMII infected cells partially blocked PARP cleavage, suggesting TNF-α may play a role in the upstream signaling involved in NMII induced apoptosis. Antibiotic inhibition of C. burnetii RNA synthesis blocked NMII infection-induced PARP activation. These results suggest that both intracellular C. burnetii replication and secreted TNF-α contribute to NMII infection-triggered apoptosis during an early stage of infection.     

Bid-induced conformational change of Bax is responsible for mitochondrial cytochrome c release during apoptosis

Here we report that in staurosporine-induced apoptosis of HeLa cells, Bid, a BH3 domain containing protein, translocates from the cytosol to mitochondria. This event is associated with a change in conformation of Bax which leads to the unmasking of its NH2-terminal domain and is accompanied by the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria. A similar finding is reported for cerebellar granule cells undergoing apoptosis induced by serum and potassium deprivation. The Bax-conformational change is prevented by Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL but not by caspase inhibitors. Using isolated mitochondria and various BH3 mutants of Bid, we demonstrate that direct binding of Bid to Bax is a prerequisite for Bax structural change and cytochrome c release. Bcl-xL can inhibit the effect of Bid by interacting directly with Bax. Moreover, using mitochondria from Bax-deficient tumor cell lines, we show that Bid- induced release of cytochrome c is negligible when Bid is added alone, but dramatically increased when Bid and Bax are added together. Taken together, our results suggest that, during certain types of apoptosis, Bid translocates to mitochondria and binds to Bax, leading to a change in conformation of Bax and to cytochrome c release from mitochondria.