生态学中的尺度及尺度转换方法

尺度作为生态学的重要范式,已经引起了广泛重视,但对尺度问题的研究还不够成熟.尺度具有多维性特点,即功能尺度、空间尺度、时间尺度等,但生态学研究的重点是空间和时间尺度.并且时空尺度还具有复杂性、变异性特征.尺度研究的根本目的在于通过适宜的空间和时间尺度来揭示和把握复杂的生态学规律.为此,科学有效的尺度选择和尺度转换方法不可或缺.常见的尺度转换方法有图示法、回归分析、变异函数、自相关分析、谱分析、分形和小波变换,同时遥感和地理信息系统技术在尺度研究中也发挥着重要作用.结合实例对上述方法进行了分析和论述,认为各种方法都有其内在的优势和不足,新方法的引入和应用对于尺度转换方法体系的充实和完善非常重要.有关尺度的研究将进一步加强,研究的重点是尺度变异性、不同尺度间的相互作用机制以及尺度转换方法等.     

主题分辨率对NDVI空间格局的影响

景观格局与尺度的相互关系一直是景观生态学的研究重点。景观生态学中的尺度内涵包括时间、空间和分析（观察）等。近年来景观格局与空间、时间尺度关系受到广泛关注,而分析尺度对格局的影响探讨较少。地理空间信息的主题分辨率反映了地理空间信息的制图细节,即专题图的分类数。以NDVI（Normalized Difference Vegetation Index）为专题图内容,选择福州行政区、福州城区和永泰县为研究区域,通过改变NDVI分类数,研究主题分辨率对空间格局的影响。NDVI格局指数包括：斑块数量（NP）、最大斑块占景观面积比例（LPI）、斑块平均大小（AREA-MN）、面积加权平均形状指数（SHAPE-AM）、面积加权平均分维数（FRAC-AM）、蔓延度指数（CONTAG）、散步与并列指数（IJI）、香农多样性指数（SHDI）。结果表明格局指数对主题分辨率（分类数）的连续响应特征如下：初始条件敏感区（分类数2—4类）、敏感响应区（分类数为4—8类）、适合分析尺度区（分类数8—12类）、不敏感区（分类数≥12类）;格局指数与主题分辨率的关系有对数增长、线性增长和幂函数下降等。分析尺度对NDVI空间格局影响的本质原因是相对应的生态系统等级结构的存在     

浅谈如何提高环评技术评估有效性

环评技术为构建环境影响评价制度提供重要保障,当前环评技术实施过程中还存在一些问题和不足,在很大程度上影响了环评技术评估的有效性,因此要积极采取有效措施,提高环评技术评估的有效性。本文分析了当前环评技术评估存在的问题,阐述了提高环评技术评估有效性的策略。     

生态学中的尺度及尺度转移方法

尺度作籽生态学的重要范式,已经引起了广泛重视,但对尺度问题的研究还不够成熟。尺度具有多样性特点,即功能尺度,空间尺度、时间尺度等,但生态学研究的重点是空间和时间尺度。并且时空尺度还具有复杂性、变异性特征、尺度研究的根本目的在于通过适宜的空间和时间尺度来揭示和把握复杂的生态学规律。为此,科学有效的尺度选择和尺度转换方法不可或缺。常见的尺度转换方法有图示法、回归分析、变异函数、自相关分析、谱分析、分形和小波变换,同时遥感和地理依信息系统技术在尺度研究中也发挥着重要作用。结合实例对上述方法进行了分析和论述,认为各种方法都有有其内在的优势和不足,新方法的引入和应用对于尺度转换方法体系的充实和完善非常重要。有关尺度的研究将进一步加强,研究的重点是尺度变异性、不同尺度间的相互作用机制以及尺度转换方法等。     

互花米草(Spartina alterniflora)潜在分布格局的空间尺度效应

了解不同空间尺度下外来入侵植物互花米草(Spartina alterniflora)的潜在分布格局,有助于制定科学的防治管理策略,维护滨海湿地的生物多样性。研究基于有效的地理分布点位和环境变量数据集,设置了3个研究区幅度(区域、国家、全球)和5种环境变量粒度(30″、1.0′、2.5′、5.0′、10′),应用最大熵(MaxEnt)模型预测互花米草在不同幅度和粒度下的潜在分布,探究互花米草分布格局及其环境影响因子对空间尺度响应。结果表明：(1)MaxEnt模型在不同空间尺度下的预测效果较好,各尺度下测试集的受试者曲线下面积(AUC)值均大于0.8,真实技巧统计值(TSS)值则超过0.56,但模型的预测精度对空间尺度变化较为敏感;(2)不同空间尺度下互花米草的潜在分布格局存在着显著的差异性,表现为适生区面积会随着空间范围扩大或环境变量分辨率降低而提高,且质心位置也在不断发生地带性转移;(3)空间尺度的变化会削弱主要环境变量的解释力。在大尺度范围和低分辨率环境变量图层中,气候因子的重要性较大,而在相反尺度下地形因子的影响度得到提升;(4)研究区范围与环境变量分辨率不匹配时,模型预测精度和物...     

科尔沁沙地景观结构特征对沙漠化过程的生态影响

采用方差分析(ANOVA)、相关分析和回归分析,从时间和空间2个尺度对科尔沁沙地景观结构特征对沙漠化的生态影响进行了研究.结果表明,任何单一景观结构对沙漠化的影响都不明显.多因子PCA分析表明,景观结构对沙漠化有明显作用,它是景观承载了自然和人为作用后的景观要素组合对沙漠化的二次作用,是自然与人为作用的结果反馈.在时间尺度上,第一和第二分量占总信息量的90.26%,说明在过去40年中景观结构对沙漠化的影响相对简单,只有一个峰值.在空间尺度上,第一和第二分量占总信息量的80.20%,景观结构对沙漠化的驱动作用相对复杂,有2个峰值.这表明景观结构特征对沙漠化的影响在空间尺度上要比时间尺度上更为复杂.     

高寒草甸植物群落中物种丰富度与生产力的关系研究

 以物种组成较为复杂的青藏高原东部地区典革高寒草甸植物群落为背景,从不同的时间和空间尺度水平研究了植物群落中物种丰富度与生产力（地上部生物量）关系的基本模式。结果表明：1）总体而言,高寒草甸植物群落中物种丰富度与生产力的关系呈对数线性增加关系,这实际上是空间和时间尺度放大时在时间和空间尺度的相互作用下高寒草甸植物群落中物种丰富度与生产力关系的一种总体模式;2）随着研究的时间和空间尺度的改变,物种丰富度与生产力的关系会发生一些相应的变化,但空间尺度比时间尺度对物种丰富度与生产力的关系造成的影响更为显著,这可能     

城市绿色基础设施降温作用及其影响因素研究进展

城市绿色基础设施（UGI）作为一种多尺度、多类型和多功能的绿色网络，对缓解城市升温和提升城市气候韧性具有重要作用。尽管如此，当前仍缺乏关于UGI降温作用研究方法、降温机制、尺度效应和影响因素等方面的系统性综述。为此，从尺度、方法、降温机制、影响因素等多个方面详尽回顾了UGI降温作用研究进展，并讨论了其局限性、挑战和未来研究方向。研究发现：（1） UGI降温作用的研究尺度可归纳为站点、建筑、街道、绿地、街区和城市6类，其中站点、绿地和街区等微尺度和局部尺度研究较多，而城市尺度关注则较少。（2）研究方法可分为温度数据获取、降温作用测度和影响因素分析三部分。其中，温度数据获取主要采用实地观测、遥感观测和模型模拟三类方法；降温作用测度可分为基于空间参考、基于时间或情景参考和基于统计关系三类；影响因素分析多采用相关分析与多重线性回归等传统统计方法，此外，可探究非线性影响的机器学习方法也逐渐得到应用。（3） UGI降温作用主要依赖于遮荫、蒸散发与冷空气团平流三类机制；UGI植被物种构成与形态、UGI空间配置和外部环境是影响降温作用的三类主要因素；不同尺度降温作用的主控影响因素存在差异，随着尺度扩大UGI空间配置因素的重要性逐渐增加。最后，研究从时空尺度、降温机制、综合影响因素、生态系统服务视角等方面讨论了当前研究的局限和未来挑战，并强调了新型数据获取技术、组合降温策略以及城市尺度UGI系统降温作用等未来研究方向。     

异质景观中水土流失的空间变异与尺度变异

综述了景观格局与水土流失过程的空间变异与尺度变异的理论和方法研究进展,提出了水土流失空间变异与尺度变异的研究方向。景观格局与生态过程的尺度变异一般处于单一尺度变异和多重尺度变异的连续体之中。尺度转换即尺度外推包括尺度上推和尺度下推,其可行性决定于尺度变异特征。水土流失不仅是多因子综合影响的一个复杂的时空变异过程,而且也是一个典型的多重尺度变异过程。传统的水土流失研究一般集中在坡面径流小区和小流域两个单一尺度上,这在很大程度上限制了水土流失的空间尺度外推和过程分析。近年来,尽管国内外很多学者开始关注水土流失的尺度变异及其影响因子．但只是对水土流失在不同大小的样地尺度以及小集水区尺度上的差异及其影响因子进行了初步的比较研究,尤其缺乏水土流失及其相关环境因子的连续尺度变异特征的机制分析。空间变异和尺度变异研究方法包括统计模型模拟法、物理模型与物理过程模拟法以及综合分析与综合预报法三大类。每种方法都有其优缺点和其特定的适宜性,最佳方法组合的选取因研究对象、研究地区和研究时间的不同而异。土壤侵蚀预报模型包括经验统计模型和物理过程模型,就解决水土流失的跨尺度关系而言,基于物理过程的空间分布式的土壤侵蚀预报模型显著优于经验模型。这些模型在关键参数的空间变异性描述和水土流失的尺度变异性分析方面非常薄弱,尤其缺乏模型分辨率和研究范围对输出结果的影响研究。完善水土流失的“尺度一格局一过程”理论,加强多重尺度上水土流失及其相关环境因子的空间变异格局和尺度变异性的实地观测与数学分析,改进土壤侵蚀预报模型这3个方面是将来的研究重点。     

生物的时间地带性及其农学涵义

生物的时间地带性可表述为生物有机体为谋求生存阈限的扩展,突破地理地带性（暂称为空间地带性）的局限,对地理地带性加以剪裁,连缀,排除不适宜自身生存的环境时段,截取适宜自身生存的环境时段所构建的生存时空体;生物的时间地带性是生物对地球运动（自转与公转）造成的节律适应的结果,时间地带性依赖于空间地带性,不同的空间地带内,时间带谱的基带不同,并在空间地带性的基础上呈现为螺旋状往复循环,是生态要素的时间周期性变化规律的体现;时间地带性与空间地带性一样,都是依赖于尺度（时间尺度与空间尺工）的生态要素分布过程,带谱的成分,范围均随着尺度的变化而变化,生物通过不同的生态策略来适应这种变化;人类农业活动已经取得一些成效,但只能在小尺度上调节时间地带性,不能改变空间地带性。     

The spatial scaling of beta diversity

Beta diversity is an important concept used to describe turnover in species composition across a wide range of spatial and temporal scales, and it underpins much of conservation theory and practice. Although substantial progress has been made in the mathematical and terminological treatment of different measures of beta diversity, there has been little conceptual synthesis of potential scale dependence of beta diversity with increasing spatial grain and geographic extent of sampling. Here, we evaluate different conceptual approaches to the spatial scaling of beta diversity, interpreted from ‘fixed’ and ‘varying’ perspectives of spatial grain and extent. We argue that a ‘sliding window’ perspective, in which spatial grain and extent covary, is an informative way to conceptualize community differentiation across scales. This concept more realistically reflects the varying empirical approaches that researchers adopt in field sampling and the varying scales of landscape perception by different organisms. Scale dependence in beta diversity has broad implications for emerging fields in ecology and biogeography, such as the integration of fine‐resolution ecogenomic data with large‐scale macroecological studies, as well as for guiding appropriate management responses to threats to biodiversity operating at different spatial scales.     

Spatial but not temporal co-divergence of a virus and its mammalian host

Co-divergence between host and parasites suggests that evolutionary processes act across similar spatial and temporal scales. Although there has been considerable work on the extent and correlates of co-divergence of RNA viruses and their mammalian hosts, relatively little is known about the extent to which virus evolution is determined by the phylogeographic history of host species. To test hypotheses related to co-divergence across a variety of spatial and temporal scales, we explored phylogenetic signatures in Andes virus (ANDV) sampled from Chile and its host rodent, Oligoryzomys longicaudatus. ANDV showed strong spatial subdivision, a phylogeographic pattern also recovered in the host using both spatial and genealogical approaches, and despite incomplete lineage sorting. Lineage structure in the virus seemed to be a response to current population dynamics in the host at the spatial scale of ecoregions. However, finer scale analyses revealed contrasting patterns of genetic structure across a latitudinal gradient. As predicted by their higher substitution rates, ANDV showed greater genealogical resolution than the rodent, with topological congruence influenced by the degree of lineage sorting within the host. However, despite these major differences in evolutionary dynamics, the geographic structure of host and virus converged across large spatial scales.     

High community turnover and dispersal limitation relative to rapid climate change

Aim Many competing hypotheses seek to identify the mechanisms behind species richness gradients. Yet, the determinants of species turnover over broad scales are uncertain. We test whether environmental dissimilarity predicts biotic turnover spatially and temporally across an array of environmental variables and spatial scales using recently observed climate changes as a pseudo‐experimental opportunity. Location Canada. Methods We used an extensive database of observation records of 282 Canadian butterfly species collected between 1900 and 2010 to characterize spatial and temporal turnover based on Jaccard indices. We compare relationships between spatial turnover and differences in an array of relevant environmental conditions, including aspects of temperature, precipitation, elevation, primary productivity and land cover. Measurements were taken within 100‐, 200‐ and 400‐km grid cells, respectively. We tested the relative importance of each variable in predicting spatial turnover using bootstrap analysis. Finally, we tested for effects of temperature and precipitation change on temporal turnover, including distinctly accounting for turnover under individual species’ potential dispersal limitations. Results Temperature differences between areas correlate with spatial turnover in butterfly assemblages, independently of distance, sampling differences or the spatial resolution of the analysis. Increasing temperatures are positively related to biotic turnover within quadrats through time. Limitations on species dispersal may cause observed biotic turnover to be lower than expected given the magnitude of temperature changes through time. Main conclusions Temperature differences can account for spatial trends in biotic dissimilarity and turnover through time in areas where climate is changing. Butterfly communities are changing quickly in some areas, probably reflecting the dispersal capacities of individual species. However, turnover is lower through time than expected in many areas, suggesting that further work is needed to understand the factors that limit dispersal across broad regions. Our results illustrate the large‐scale effects of climate change on biodiversity in areas with strong environmental gradients.     

Genetic Analysis of Invasive Plant Populations at Different Spatial Scales

Measuring genetic diversity requires selection of a spatial scale of analysis. Different levels of genetic structuring are revealed at different spatial scales, however, and the relative importance of factors driving genetic structuring varies along the spatial scale continuum. Unequal gene flow is a major factor determining genetic structure in plant populations at the local level, while the effect of selection imposed by environmental heterogeneity increases with the spatial scale of analysis. At a continental and global scale genetic structure of invasive plant populations is significantly affected by founder effect and propagule transport via human vectors. Although genetic analysis at one spatial scale provides only partial information about the invasion process, little published research reports such data for the same species at multiple scales. A multi-faceted approach to investigating the genetic structure of invasive plant species that incorporates sampling at different spatial and temporal scales would provide a more complete picture of the role of genetic forces in invasion.     

A comprehensive framework for global patterns in biodiversity

The present study proposes to reconcile the different spatial and temporal scales of regional species production and local constraint on species richness. Although interactions between populations rapidly achieve equilibrium and limit membership in ecological communities locally, these interactions occur over heterogeneous environments within large regions, where the populations of species are stably regulated through competition and habitat selection. Consequently, exclusion of species from a region depends on long‐term regional‐scale environmental change or evolutionary change among interacting populations, bringing species production and extinction onto the same scale and establishing a link between local and regional processes.     

Dissecting spatiotemporal patterns of functional diversity through the lens of Darwin's naturalization conundrum

Darwin's naturalization conundrum describes the paradigm that community assembly is regulated by two opposing processes, environmental filtering and competitive interactions, which predict both similarity and distinctiveness of species to be important for establishment. Our goal is to use long‐term, large‐scale, and high‐resolution temporal data to examine diversity patterns over time and assess whether environmental filtering or competition plays a larger role in regulating community assembly processes. We evaluated Darwin's naturalization conundrum and how functional diversity has changed in the Laurentian Great Lakes fish community from 1870 to 2010, which has experienced frequent introductions of non‐native species and extirpations of native species. We analyzed how functional diversity has changed over time by decade from 1870 to 2010 at three spatial scales (regional, lake, and habitat) to account for potential noninteractions between species at the regional and lake level. We also determined which process, environmental filtering or competitive interactions, is more important in regulating community assembly and maintenance by comparing observed patterns to what we would expect in the absence of an ecological mechanism. With the exception of one community, all analyses show that functional diversity and species richness has increased over time and that environmental filtering regulates community assembly at the regional level. When examining functional diversity at the lake and habitat level, the regulating processes become more context dependent. This study is the first to examine diversity patterns and Darwin's conundrum by integrating long‐term, large‐scale, and high‐resolution temporal data at multiple spatial scales. Our results confirm that Darwin's conundrum is highly context dependent.     

Spatial and temporal variation of ecosystem properties at macroscales

Although spatial and temporal variation in ecological properties has been well‐studied, crucial knowledge gaps remain for studies conducted at macroscales and for ecosystem properties related to material and energy. We test four propositions of spatial and temporal variation in ecosystem properties within a macroscale (1000 km's) extent. We fit Bayesian hierarchical models to thousands of observations from over two decades to quantify four components of variation – spatial (local and regional) and temporal (local and coherent); and to model their drivers. We found strong support for three propositions: (1) spatial variation at local and regional scales are large and roughly equal, (2) annual temporal variation is mostly local rather than coherent, and, (3) spatial variation exceeds temporal variation. Our findings imply that predicting ecosystem responses to environmental changes at macroscales requires consideration of the dominant spatial signals at both local and regional scales that may overwhelm temporal signals.     

遥感在森林地上生物量估算中的应用

生物量是地表C循环研究的重要组成部分,生物量研究有助于深入认识区域乃至全球的C平衡。森林作为地球最重要的陆地生态系统,区域乃至全球尺度的森林地上生物量估算一直是生态学研究的难点之一。在大的空间尺度上,遥感技术是估算森林地上生物量的有效手段。TM、AVHRR、SAR等数据以及多源数据的融合在森林生物量估算方面广泛应用,并取得了显著效果。运用遥感技术进行森林生物量估算时,所采用的数据源不同,分析方法也不相同,主要分析方法有:相关分析、多元回归分析、神经网络和数学模型模拟等。随着测定不同空间、时间和波谱分辨率的各种传感器的广泛使用,以及生物量遥感估算模型的进一步发展和完善,大尺度森林生物量的遥感估算研究必将向前迈进一大步。     

Temporal resolutions in species distribution models of highly mobile marine animals: Recommendations for ecologists and managers

While ecologists have long recognized the influence of spatial resolution on species distribution models (SDMs), they have given relatively little attention to the influence of temporal resolution. Considering temporal resolutions is critical in distribution modelling of highly mobile marine animals, as they interact with dynamic oceanographic processes that vary at time‐scales from seconds to decades. We guide ecologists in selecting temporal resolutions that best match ecological questions and ecosystems, and managers in applying these models. We group the temporal resolutions of environmental variables used in SDMs into three classes: instantaneous, contemporaneous and climatological. We posit that animal associations with fine‐scale and ephemeral features are best modelled with instantaneous covariates. Associations with large scale and persistent oceanographic features are best modelled with climatological covariates. Associations with mesoscale features are best modelled with instantaneous or contemporaneous covariates if ephemeral processes are present or interannual variability occurs, and climatological covariates if seasonal processes dominate and interannual variability is weak.