Incorporating phylogenetic information for the definition of floristic districts in hyperdiverse Amazon forests: Implications for conservation

Using complementary metrics to evaluate phylogenetic diversity can facilitate the delimitation of floristic units and conservation priority areas. In this study, we describe the spatial patterns of phylogenetic alpha and beta diversity, phylogenetic endemism, and evolutionary distinctiveness of the hyperdiverse Ecuador Amazon forests and define priority areas for conservation. We established a network of 62 one‐hectare plots in terra firme forests of Ecuadorian Amazon. In these plots, we tagged, collected, and identified every single adult tree with dbh ≥10 cm. These data were combined with a regional community phylogenetic tree to calculate different phylogenetic diversity (PD) metrics in order to create spatial models. We used Loess regression to estimate the spatial variation of taxonomic and phylogenetic beta diversity as well as phylogenetic endemism and evolutionary distinctiveness. We found evidence for the definition of three floristic districts in the Ecuadorian Amazon, supported by both taxonomic and phylogenetic diversity data. Areas with high levels of phylogenetic endemism and evolutionary distinctiveness in Ecuadorian Amazon forests are unprotected. Furthermore, these areas are severely threatened by proposed plans of oil and mining extraction at large scales and should be prioritized in conservation planning for this region.     

Multiple facets of biodiversity are threatened by mining-induced land-use change in the Brazilian Amazon

Aim

Mining is increasingly pressuring areas of critical importance for biodiversity conservation, such as the Brazilian Amazon. Biodiversity data are limited in the tropics, restricting the scope for risks to be appropriately estimated before mineral licensing decisions are made. As the distributions and range sizes of other taxa differ markedly from those of vertebrates—the common proxy for analysis of risk to biodiversity from mining—whether mining threatens lesser-studied taxonomic groups differentially at a regional scale is unclear.

Location

Brazilian Amazon.

Methods

We assess risks to several facets of biodiversity from industrial mining by comparing mining areas (within 70 km of an active mining lease) and areas unaffected by mining, employing species richness, species endemism, phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic endemism metrics calculated for angiosperms, arthropods and vertebrates.

Results

Mining areas contained higher densities of species occurrence records than the unaffected landscape, and we accounted for this sampling bias in our analyses. None of the four biodiversity metrics differed between mining and nonmining areas for vertebrates. For arthropods, species endemism was greater in mined areas. Mined areas also had greater angiosperm species richness, phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic endemism, although less species endemism than unmined areas.

Main Conclusions

Unlike for vertebrates, facets of angiosperm and arthropod diversity are relatively higher in areas of mining activity, underscoring the need to consider multiple taxonomic groups and biodiversity facets when assessing risk and evaluating management options for mining threats. Particularly concerning is the proximity of mining to areas supporting deep evolutionary history, which may be impossible to recover or replace. As pressures to expand mining in the Amazon grow, impact assessments with broader taxonomic reach and metric focus will be vital to conserving biodiversity in mining regions.     

Fern and lycophyte diversity in the Pacific Northwest: Patterns and predictors

Recent floristic efforts in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) have now made it possible to characterize the broad‐scale patterns of fern and lycophyte diversity across this large and geologically‐complex region of western North America. The physiography of the PNW has been developing for over 200 million years, but Pleistocene glaciation‐induced migrations and recolonizations have strongly influenced the assembly of the flora. With the high dispersal potential of fern and lycophyte spores, the distribution patterns of pteridophytes may be representative of habitat suitability more than dispersal constraints. Our objective was to describe the biodiversity of pteridophytes in the PNW, determine the spatial distribution of that biodiversity in terms of phylogenetic diversity, identify centers of regional endemism, explore the correlations between biodiversity and environmental variables, and infer possible influences of past glaciation on the pteridophyte flora. We obtained presence‐only distribution data from two online databases. A phylogenetic tree was constructed using chloroplast DNA sequence data from GenBank. We used the Biodiverse software package to estimate and map phylogenetic diversity and phylogenetic endemism across the PNW, and to identify those regions of the PNW where diversity was higher or lower than expected in comparison to randomization models. Environmental correlates of diversity were identified using principal components analysis with bioclimatic data from WorldClim.org, and we used Maxent to predict habitat suitability for species under past and future climate conditions. We found evidence for the influence of past glaciations and glacial refugia on the patterns of pteridophyte diversity, that moisture availability and cold temperatures are strongly correlated with patterns of genus richness, phylogenetic diversity, and phylogenetic endemism. We infer that the topographic complexity of the region may be driving the assembly of the pteridophyte flora indirectly by influencing climate and precipitation patterns.     

Diversity, endemism and species turnover of millipedes within the south-western Australian global biodiversity hotspot

Aim To examine how current and historical environmental gradients affect patterns of millipede (Diplopoda) endemism and species turnover in a global hotspot of floristic diversity, and to identify regions of high endemism and taxonomic distinctness for conservation management. Location South‐western Australia. Methods Museum database records of millipedes (subclasses Pentazonia and Helminthomorpha), supplemented with extensive fieldwork, were used to map species richness, species turnover (β‐diversity), weighted endemism, average taxonomic distinctness and variation in taxonomic distinctness in half‐degree grid squares (c. 2500 km²). Generalized linear models were used to examine relationships between these parameters with rainfall (present day and historical), topography and human disturbance (clearing for agriculture and urbanization). Results Millipede species richness, particularly within the order Spirostreptida, and millipede endemism were positively associated with large within‐cell differences in elevation (mountainous regions). Large variation in taxonomic distinctness (unevenness in the taxonomic tree) in higher‐rainfall areas was mainly due to speciation within the Spirostreptida genus Atelomastix. Hotspots of millipede endemism and taxonomic distinctness were identified within three categories of importance: primary (Stirling Range East, Cape Le Grand, Cape Arid, Walpole, Porongurups), secondary (Mount Manypeaks, Bremer Bay, Stirling Range West, Duke of Orleans Bay, Ravensthorpe, Albany, Busselton) and tertiary (Nornalup). A species turnover boundary was positively associated with rainfall, broadly located in the transition zone of 300–600 mm year^?1. Main conclusions The current lack of knowledge on the endemism of invertebrates hampers their incorporation into conservation planning. With this knowledge we can identify global biodiversity hotspots and, at a smaller scale, significant conservation areas within a region. Here we have shown that weighted endemism and taxonomic distinctness are useful tools in identifying centres of high endemism and speciation for millipedes within the south‐west Australian hotspot. Moreover, it is unlikely that either vertebrates or vascular plants will be useful surrogates for identifying significant areas for invertebrate conservation. While other workers have shown that vascular plants, mammals and frogs have different centres of endemism within south‐west Australia, our results show that centres of endemism for millipedes encompass all of these plus other areas.     

Phylogenetic endemism: a new approach for identifying geographical concentrations of evolutionary history

We present a new, broadly applicable measure of the spatial restriction of phylogenetic diversity, termed phylogenetic endemism (PE). PE combines the widely used phylogenetic diversity and weighted endemism measures to identify areas where substantial components of phylogenetic diversity are restricted. Such areas are likely to be of considerable importance for conservation. PE has a number of desirable properties not combined in previous approaches. It assesses endemism consistently, independent of taxonomic status or level, and independent of previously defined political or biological regions. The results can be directly compared between areas because they are based on equivalent spatial units. PE builds on previous phylogenetic analyses of endemism, but provides a more general solution for mapping endemism of lineages. We illustrate the broad applicability of PE using examples of Australian organisms having contrasting life histories: pea-flowered shrubs of the genus Daviesia (Fabaceae) and the Australian species of the Australo-Papuan tree frog radiation within the family Hylidae.     

Floristic composition and endemism pattern of vascular plants in Ethiopia and Eritrea

Traditional attempts to delineate floristic regions are typically based on the qualitative analysis of species distribution, often ignoring the phylogenetic relationships among their taxa. Ethiopia and Eritrea are in the Horn of Africa, known as one of the world's biodiversity hotspots. We quantitatively classified the flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea into meaningful geographical units by analyzing the taxonomic and phylogenetic β‐diversity at genera, total species, and endemic species levels at a scale of 0.5° × 0.5° grid cells. Hierarchical clustering was used to quantitatively delimitate the flora and analysis of similarities was used to test the significant difference between the derived groups in taxonomic composition and phylogenetic relatedness. In total, two floristic subprovinces, five floristic districts, and 13 floristic subdistricts, as well as three centers of species endemism associated with three floristic subdistricts were identified. Our results also showed that the species diversity, endemism, and turnover of the highlands in Ethiopia and Eritrea were much higher than the lowlands, indicating that the floristic differences are closely related to the topography of the East African Rift. In this study, we provided a scientific framework for the composition and relationships of the floristic units in the Horn of Africa, and similarly provided a scientific basis for better conservation of the diversity in this region.     

Museums and cradles of diversity are geographically coincident for narrowly distributed Neotropical snakes

Factors driving the spatial configuration of centres of endemism have long been a topic of broad interest and debate. Due to different eco-evolutionary processes, these highly biodiverse areas may harbour different amounts of ancient and recently diverged organisms (paleo- and neo-endemism, respectively). Patterns of endemism still need to be measured at distinct phylogenetic levels for most clades and, consequently, little is known about the distribution, the age and the causes of such patterns. Here we tested for the presence of centres with high phylogenetic endemism (PE) in the highly diverse Neotropical snakes, testing the age of these patterns (paleo- or neo-endemism), and the presence of PE centres with distinct phylogenetic composition. We then tested whether PE is predicted by topography, by climate (seasonality, stability, buffering and relictualness), or biome size. We found that most areas of high PE for Neotropical snakes present a combination of both ancient and recently diverged diversity, which is distributed mostly in the Caribbean region, Central America, the Andes, the Atlantic Forest and on scattered highlands in central Brazil. Turnover of lineages is higher across Central America, resulting in more phylogenetically distinct PE centres compared to South America, which presents a more phylogenetically uniform snake fauna. Finally, we found that elevational range (topographic roughness) is the main predictor of PE, especially for paleo-endemism, whereas low paleo-endemism levels coincide with areas of high climatic seasonality. Our study highlights the importance of mountain systems to both ancient and recent narrowly distributed diversity. Mountains are both museums and cradles of snake diversity in the Neotropics, which has important implications for conservation in this region.     

Phylogenetic assemblage structure of North American trees is more strongly shaped by glacial–interglacial climate variability in gymnosperms than in angiosperms

How fast does biodiversity respond to climate change? The relationship of past and current climate with phylogenetic assemblage structure helps us to understand this question. Studies of angiosperm tree diversity in North America have already suggested effects of current water–energy balance and tropical niche conservatism. However, the role of glacial–interglacial climate variability remains to be determined, and little is known about any of these relationships for gymnosperms. Moreover, phylogenetic endemism, the concentration of unique lineages in restricted ranges, may also be related to glacial–interglacial climate variability and needs more attention. We used a refined phylogeny of both angiosperms and gymnosperms to map phylogenetic diversity, clustering and endemism of North American trees in 100‐km grid cells, and climate change velocity since Last Glacial Maximum together with postglacial accessibility to recolonization to quantify glacial–interglacial climate variability. We found: (1) Current climate is the dominant factor explaining the overall patterns, with more clustered angiosperm assemblages toward lower temperature, consistent with tropical niche conservatism. (2) Long‐term climate stability is associated with higher angiosperm endemism, while higher postglacial accessibility is linked to to more phylogenetic clustering and endemism in gymnosperms. (3) Factors linked to glacial–interglacial climate change have stronger effects on gymnosperms than on angiosperms. These results suggest that paleoclimate legacies supplement current climate in shaping phylogenetic patterns in North American trees, and especially so for gymnosperms.     

Assessing and conserving groundwater biodiversity: synthesis and perspectives

1. This paper is a synthesis of a special issue on groundwater biodiversity with a focus on obligate subterranean species, the stygobionts. The series of papers constitutes a great leap forward in assessing and understanding biodiversity patterns because of the use of large quantitative data sets obtained over a broad geographic scale. They also represent a conceptual shift, away from a purely taxonomic and phylogenetic focus to the analysis of whole groundwater assemblages.
2. The general patterns emerging for groundwater fauna are: very high levels of endemism, low local diversity relative to regional diversity, a limited number of lineages, occurrence of many relicts, and truncated food webs with very few predators.
3. β-Diversity is at least as important as α-diversity in determining total richness at different scales (aquifer, basin and region) and overall taxa richness increases across spatial scales.
4. Advances in understanding groundwater biodiversity patterns further include identification of several important factors related to geology and hydrology that determine the composition of European stygobiotic assemblages.
5. Important challenges for future research include improving sampling strategies, filling gaps in sampling coverage, intensifying research on theoretical and statistical models, and including functional and genetic diversity components in biodiversity assessments.
6. Strategies are proposed for protecting groundwater biodiversity and an argument is made to integrate biodiversity in groundwater management. Applying principles such as complementarity and flexibility for groundwater biodiversity conservation is a major step toward delineating a reserve network that maximise species representation at the European scale.     

Contrasting patterns of diversification in a bird family (Aves: Gruiformes: Rallidae) are revealed by analysis of geospatial distribution of species and phylogenetic diversity

Geospatial patterns in the distribution of regional biodiversity reflect the composite processes that underpin evolution: speciation, dispersal and extinction. The spatial distribution and phylogeny of a globally widespread and species rich bird family (Rallidae) were used to help assess the role of large‐scale biogeographical processes in diversity and diversification. Here, we examine how different geostatistical diversity metrics enhance our understanding of species distribution by linking occurrence records of rail species to corresponding species level phylogeny. Tropical regions and temperate zones contained a large proportion of rail species richness and phylogenetic diversity whilst small islands in Australian, Oceanian and Oriental regions held the highest weighted and phylogenetic endemism. Our results suggest that habitat connectivity and dispersal were important ecological features in rail evolution and distribution. Spatial isolation was a significant driver of diversification where islands in Oceania were centres of neo‐endemism with recent multiple and independent speciation events and could be considered as nurseries of biodiversity. Palaeo‐endemism was mostly associated with older stable regions, so despite extensive long distance range shifting these areas retain their own ancient and distinct character. Madagascar was the major area of palaeo‐endemism associated with the oldest rail lineages and could be considered a museum of rail diversity. This implies a mixture of processes determine the current distribution and diversity of rail clades with some areas dominated by recent ‘in situ’ speciation while others harbour old diversity with ecological traits that have stood the test of time.     

Stochastic losses of fire‐dependent endemic herbs revealed by a 65‐year chronosequence of dispersal‐limited woody plant encroachment

The factors responsible for maintaining diverse groundcover plant communities of high conservation value in frequently burned wet pine savannas are poorly understood. While most management involves manipulating extrinsic factors important in maintaining species diversity (e.g., fire regimes), most ecological theory (e.g., niche theory and neutral theory) examines how traits exhibited by the species promote species coexistence. Furthermore, although many ecologists focus on processes that maintain local species diversity, conservation biologists have argued that other indices (e.g., phylogenetic diversity) are better for evaluating assemblages in terms of their conservation value. I used a null model that employed beta‐diversity calculations based on Raup–Crick distances to test for deterministic herbaceous species losses associated with a 65‐year chronosequence of woody species encroachment within each of three localities. I quantified conservation value of assemblages by measuring taxonomic distinctness, endemism, and floristic quality of plots with and without woody encroachment. Reductions in herb species richness per plot attributable to woody encroachment were largely stochastic, as indicated by a lack of change in the mean or variance in beta‐diversity caused by woody encroachment in the savannas studied here. Taxonomic distinctness, endemism, and floristic quality (when summed across all species) were all greater in areas that had not experienced woody encroachment. However, when corrected for local species richness, only average endemism and floristic quality of assemblages inclusive of herbs and woody plants were greater in areas that had not experienced woody encroachment, due to the more restricted ranges and habitat requirements of herbs. Results suggest that frequent fires maintain diverse assemblages of fire‐dependent herb species endemic to the region. The stochastic loss of plant species, irrespective of their taxonomic distinctness, to woody encroachment suggests that the relevance of niche partitioning or phylogenetic diversity to the management of biodiversity in wet pine savannas is minimal.     

Conservation biology of Malagasy strepsirhines: a phylogenetic approach

The phylogenetic diversity of extant lemurs represents one of the most important but least studied aspects of the conservation biology of primates. The phylogenetic diversity of a species is inversely proportional to the relative number and closeness of its phylogenetic relatives. Phylogenetic diversity can then be used to determine conservation priorities for specific biogeographic regions. Although Malagasy strepsirhines represent the highest phylogenetic diversity among primates at the global level, there are few phylogenetic data on species-specific and regional conservation plans for lemurs in Madagascar. Therefore, in this paper the following questions are addressed for extant lemurs: 1) how does the measure of taxonomic uniqueness used by Mittermeier et al. (1992 Lemurs of Madagascar; Gland, Switzerland: IUCN) equate with an index of phylogenetic diversity, 2) what are the regional conservation priorities based on analyses of phylogenetic diversity in extant lemurs, and 3) what conservation recommendations can be made based on analyses of phylogenetic diversity in lemurs? Taxonomic endemicity standardized weight (TESW) indices of phylogenetic diversity were used to determine the evolutionary component of biodiversity and to prioritize regions for conserving lemur taxa. TESW refers to the standardization of phylogenetic diversity indices for widespread taxa and endemicity of species. The phylogenetic data came from recent genetic studies of Malagasy strepsirhines at the species level. Lemur species were assigned as being either present or absent in six biogeographic regions. TESW indices were combined with data on lemur complementarity and protected areas to assign conservation priorities at the regional level. Although there were no overall differences between taxonomic ranks and phylogenetic rankings, there were significant differences for the top-ranked taxa. The phylogenetic component of lemur diversity is greatest for Daubentonia madagascariensis, Allocebus trichotis, Lepilemur septentrionalis, Indri indri, and Mirza coquereli. Regional conservation priorities are highest for lemurs that range into northeast humid forests and western dry forests. Expansion of existing protected areas in these regions may provide the most rapid method for preserving lemurs. In the long term, new protected areas must be created because there are lemur species that: 1) are not found in existing protected areas, 2) exist only in one or two protected areas, and 3) are still being discovered outside the current network of protected areas. Data on the population dynamics and feeding ecology of phylogenetically important species are needed to ensure that protected areas adequately conserve lemur populations in Madagascar.     

Endemic birds of the Atlantic Forest: traits,conservation status,and patterns of biodiversity

The bird fauna of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest is exceptionally diverse and threatened, with high levels of endemism. Available lists of the endemic birds of the Atlantic Forest were generated before recent taxonomic revisions lumped or split species and before the recent increase in species occurrence records. Our objective, therefore, was to compile a new list of the endemic birds of the Atlantic Forest, characterize these species in terms of conservation status and natural history traits, and map remaining vegetation and protected areas. We combined GIS analysis with a literature search to compile a list of endemic species and, based on the phylogeny and distribution of these species, characterized areas in terms of species richness, phylogenetic diversity, and endemism. We identified 223 species of birds endemic to the Atlantic Forest, including 12 species not included in previous lists. In addition, 14 species included in previous lists were not considered endemic, either because they occur outside the Atlantic Forest biome or because they are not considered valid species. The typical Atlantic Forest endemic bird is a small forest‐dependent invertivore. Of the species on our list, 31% are considered threatened or extinct. Only ~ 34% of the spatial analysis units had > 10% forest cover, and protected area coverage was consistently low (< 1%). In addition, we found spatial incongruity among the different measures of biodiversity (species richness, relative phylogenetic diversity, restricted‐range species, and irreplaceability). Each of these measures provides information concerning different aspects of biological diversity. However, regardless of which aspect(s) of biodiversity might be considered most important, preservation of the remaining areas of remnant vegetation and further expansion of protected areas are essential if we are to conserve the many endemic species of birds in the Atlantic Forest.     

A phylogenetic perspective on the evolutionary processes of floristic assemblages within a biodiversity hotspot in eastern Asia

Abstract How to maximize the conservation of biodiversity is critical for conservation planning, particularly given rapid habitat loss and global climatic change. The importance of preserving phylogenetic diversity has gained recognition due to its ability to identify some influences of evolutionary history on contemporary patterns of species assemblages that traditional taxonomic richness measures cannot identify. In this study, we evaluate the relationship between taxonomic richness and phylogenetic diversity of angiosperms at genus and species levels and explore the spatial pattern of the residuals of this relationship. We then incorporate data on historical biogeography to understand the process that shaped contemporary floristic assemblages in a global biodiversity hotspot, Yunnan Province, located in southwestern China. We identified a strong correlation between phylogenetic diversity residuals and the biogeographic affinity of the lineages in the extant Yunnan angiosperm flora. Phylogenetic diversity is well correlated with taxonomic richness at both genus and species levels between floras in Yunnan, where two diversity centers of phylogenetic diversity were identified (the northwestern center and the southern center). The northwestern center, with lower phylogenetic diversity than expected based on taxonomic richness, is rich in temperate‐affinity lineages and signifies an area of rapid speciation. The southern center, with higher phylogenetic diversity than predicted by taxonomic richness, contains a higher proportion of lineages with tropical affinity and seems to have experienced high immigration rates. Our results highlight that maximizing phylogenetic diversity with historical interpretation can provide valuable insights into the floristic assemblage of a region and better‐informed decisions can be made to ensure different stages of a region's evolutionary history are preserved.     

Anthropogenic threats can have cascading homogenizing effects on the phylogenetic and functional diversity of tropical ecosystems

Determining the mechanisms that underlie species distributions and assemblages is necessary to effectively preserve biodiversity. This cannot be accomplished by examining a single taxonomic group, as communities comprise a plethora of interactions across species and trophic levels. Here, we examine the patterns and relationships among plant, mammal, and bird diversity in Madagascar, a hotspot of biodiversity and endemism, across taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional axes. We found that plant community diversity and structure are shaped by geography and climate, and have significant influences on the taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity of mammals and birds. Patterns of primate diversity, in particular, were strongly correlated with patterns of plant diversity. Furthermore, our findings suggest that plant and animal communities could become more phylogenetically and functionally clustered in the future, leading to homogenization of the flora and fauna. These results underscore the importance and need of multi‐taxon approaches to conservation, given that even small threats to plant diversity can have significant cascading effects on mammalian and avian community diversity, structure, and function.     

Evolutionary history of the flora of Mexico: Dry forests cradles and museums of endemism

Mexico is considered an exceptional biogeographic area with a varied endemic flora, however spatial phylogenetic measures of biodiversity have not yet been estimated to understand how its flora assembled to form the current vegetation. Patterns of species richness, endemism, phylogenetic diversity, phylogenetic endemism and centers of neo‐ and paleo‐endemism were determined to examine differences and congruence among these measures, and their implications for conservation. Of 24 360 vascular plant species 10 235 (42%) are endemic. Areas of endemism and phylogenetic endemism were associated with dry forests in zones of topographic complexity in mountain systems, in deserts, and in isolated xeric vegetation. Every single locality where seasonally tropical dry forests have been reported in Mexico was identified as an area of endemism. Significant phylogenetic diversity was the most restricted and occurred in the Trans‐Mexican Volcanic Belt and in the Sierra de Chiapas. Notably, the highest degree of phylogenetic clustering comprising neo‐, paleo‐, and super‐endemism was identified in southernmost Mexico. Most vascular plant lineages diverged in the Miocene (5–20 mya) when arid environments expanded across the world. The location of Mexico between two very large landmasses and the fact that more than fifty percent of its surface is arid favored the establishment of tropical lineages adapted to extreme seasonality and aridity. These lineages were able to migrate from both North and South America across Central America presumably during the Miocene and to diversify, illustrating the signature of the flora of Mexico of areas of endemism with a mixture of neo‐ and paleo‐endemism.     

Conservation biogeography in North-east India: hierarchical analysis of cross-taxon distributional congruence

Distributional similarity (congruence) between phylogenetically independent taxonomic groups has important biogeographical as well as conservation implications. When multiple groups show congruence, one or two of them can be used as surrogates of diversity in others; thus, simplifying some of the challenges of area prioritization for conservation action. Here we test for congruence in complementarity between amphibians, reptiles and birds across seven tropical rainforest sites in the Eastern Himalaya and Indo-Burma global biodiversity hotspots. The results show that while frogs and lizards are strongly congruent with each other, birds as a whole do not show congruence with either of them. However, certain bird subgroups delineated on the basis of broad ecological niche and life history attributes are significantly congruent with both frogs and lizards. Multiple Mantel regression between environmental variable and species distribution dissimilarity matrices indicate that along with differential response to between-site ecological differences, inherent life-history characteristics shared by certain groups contributes to observed patterns of congruence. Our analyses indicate that examining biologically distinct subsets of larger groups can improve the resolution of congruence analyses. This approach can refine area-prioritization initiatives by revealing fine-scale discordances between otherwise concordant groups, and vice versa. Given that monetary resources do not always allow inclusion of multiple groups in biodiversity inventorying efforts, performing such analyses also makes economic sense because it can provide better resolution even with single-group data. In the context of conservation in North-east India, the results highlight the biogeographical complexity of the region, and also point at future priorities for biodiversity inventorying and conservation prioritization, both in terms of areas as well as taxonomic groups.     

Why and how might genetic and phylogenetic diversity be reflected in the identification of key biodiversity areas?

‘Key biodiversity areas'' are defined as sites contributing significantly to the global persistence of biodiversity. The identification of these sites builds from existing approaches based on measures of species and ecosystem diversity and process. Here, we therefore build from the work of Sgró et al. (2011 Evol. Appl. 4, 326–337. (doi:10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00157.x)) to extend a framework for how components of genetic diversity might be considered in the identification of key biodiversity areas. We make three recommendations to inform the ongoing process of consolidating a key biodiversity areas standard: (i) thresholds for the threatened species criterion currently consider a site''s share of a threatened species'' population; expand these to include the proportion of the species'' genetic diversity unique to a site; (ii) expand criterion for ‘threatened species'' to consider ‘threatened taxa’ and (iii) expand the centre of endemism criterion to identify as key biodiversity areas those sites holding a threshold proportion of the compositional or phylogenetic diversity of species (within a taxonomic group) whose restricted ranges collectively define a centre of endemism. We also recommend consideration of occurrence of EDGE species (i.e. threatened phylogenetic diversity) in key biodiversity areas to prioritize species-specific conservation actions among sites.     

A taxonomic and phylogenetic perspective on plant community assembly along an elevational gradient in subtropical forests

亚热带森林植物群落沿海拔梯度的分类与系统发育研究 生物多样性沿海拔梯度的分布格局已受到广泛关注。然而,生物多样性格局沿海拔梯度的变异及其潜在机制尚不清楚。整合生物多样性的多维度信息为理解群落构建机制提供了新思路。本研究在我国东部亚热带森林沿海拔270–1470 m的梯度上设置了17个木本植物固定样地,分析了沿海拔梯度植物群落 构建的生态和进化驱动力。基于样地内物种出现(0–1数据)和多度信息,计算群落内被子植物的物种和系统发育alpha和beta多样性、系统发育结构等,并量化多样性指标与微气候和地形之间的关系。研究发现,不论多度加权与否,物种alpha多样性均沿海拔升高而增加,物种和系统发育的相似性随海拔距离的增加而呈衰减趋势。然而,多度加权与否会形成不同的系统发育alpha多样性格局。对于系统发育结构而言,沿海拔增加并无明显趋势。地形和微气候是多样性格局和系统发育结构的主要驱动力。与未考虑物种多度的多样性指标相比,多度加权的指标与坡度和胸高断面积相关性更高。这些结果表明,由局域物种多度介导的确定性过程对沿海拔梯度的植物群落构建具有一定影响。