Easy and Rapid Detection of Mumps Virus by Live Fluorescent Visualization of Virus-Infected Cells

Mumps viruses show diverse cytopathic effects (CPEs) of infected cells and viral plaque formation (no CPE or no plaque formation in some cases) depending on the viral strain, highlighting the difficulty in mumps laboratory studies. In our previous study, a new sialidase substrate, 2-(benzothiazol-2-yl)-4-bromophenyl 5-acetamido-3,5-dideoxy-α-D-glycero-D-galacto-2-nonulopyranosidonic acid (BTP3-Neu5Ac), was developed for visualization of sialidase activity. BTP3-Neu5Ac can easily and rapidly perform histochemical fluorescent visualization of influenza viruses and virus-infected cells without an antiviral antibody and cell fixation. In the present study, the potential utility of BTP3-Neu5Ac for rapid detection of mumps virus was demonstrated. BTP3-Neu5Ac could visualize dot-blotted mumps virus, virus-infected cells, and plaques (plaques should be called focuses due to staining of infected cells in this study), even if a CPE was not observed. Furthermore, virus cultivation was possible by direct pick-up from a fluorescent focus. In conventional methods, visible appearance of the CPE and focuses often requires more than 6 days after infection, but the new method with BTP3-Neu5Ac clearly visualized infected cells after 2 days and focuses after 4 days. The BTP3-Neu5Ac assay is a precise, easy, and rapid assay for confirmation and titration of mumps virus.     

The HIV-1 Tat protein selectively enhances CXCR4 and inhibits CCR5 expression in megakaryocytic K562 cells

The hematopoietic compartments act as long-term reservoirs for human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1). Although hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) are rarely infectable, HPCs committed to the megakaryocytic lineage can be infected and support a productive infection by both the X4 and R5 strains of HIV-1. Indeed, in contrast to the CD34+ progenitors, the lineage-committed HPCs express high levels of the HIV-1 co-receptors, CXCR4 and CCR5. The HIV-1 transactivator (Tat) protein has been shown to alter co-receptor expression in T lymphocytes and macrophages. We hypothesized that Tat may regulate co-receptor expression in lineage-specific HPCs as well. We have monitored the effects of Tat protein on co-receptor expression and on lineage-specific differentiation, using the HPC cell line, K562. Butyric acid (BA)-induced erythroid differentiation in K562 cells was suppressed by 1-100 ng/ml of Tat, as evident from a 70-80% decrease in hemoglobin (Hb) production and a 10-30-fold decrease in glycophorin-A expression. However, Tat treatment enhanced phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-induced megakaryocytic differentiation, as evident from a 180-210% increase in 3H-serotonin uptake and a 5-12-fold increase in CD61 expression. Tat did not significantly alter co-receptor expression in erythroid cells. However, Tat co-treatment profoundly effected both CXCR4 and CCR5 gene expression and protein levels in megakaryocytic cells. In PMA-stimulated cells, Tat increased CXCR4 and decreased in CCR5 expression, this was potentiated in cells chronically exposed to Tat. In conclusion, Tat protein suppresses erythroid and facilitates megakaryocytic differentiation of K562 cells. In megakaryocytic cells, Tat differentially effected CXCR4 and CCR5 expression. Because megakaryocytes may play a crucial role in HIV-1 infectivity in viral reservoirs, our findings implicate a role for Tat protein in dictating co-receptor usage in lineage-committed HPCs.     

A review of HIV-1 Tat protein biological effects

The authors have reviewed some biological properties of HIV-1 Tat protein, and have also reported some personal data. This viral regulatory protein is endowed with multifunctional activities, acting as an endogenous factor in the infected cells and exogenously, on those uninfected. In particular, Tat-induced proliferation and differentiation of HIV target cells which promotes viral infection, is discussed in this review. However, exogenous Tat protein can sometimes also produce, directly or indirectly, damaging effects in different organs and host systems, such as myocardium, kidney, liver and central nervous system (CNS). For example some data also demonstrate an increase in the apoptotic index induced by Tat at various levels, including the immune system. The effective role of HIV-1 Tat protein in promoting viral replication and its high immunogenicity suggest useful employment of this protein for therapeutic or preventive vaccine preparations.     

Antibody to HIV-1 Tat protein, a key molecule in HIV-1 pathogenesis. A brief review

In the last few years, literature reports have unequivocally established that the 86-101 aminoacid Tat protein, essential for an efficient viral replication, can be actively secreted by infected cells. The contribution of extracellular Tat to the progression of viral infection is underlined by the ability of neutralizing anti Tat antibody to reduce the viral load in vitro and possibly also in vivo. Considering that at least some of the effect of Tat protein seem to be the consequence of an autocrine loop and that anti Tat antibody is an efficient inhibitor of viral replication, it is reasonable to suppose that extracellular Tat play a functional role in HIV-1 infection and that HIV antibody may interfere with a possible Tat driven pathogenesis. This review explores the meaning of anti Tat antibody in vitro and in vivo and its importance to shed more light on viral pathogenesis and the recent development of Tat containing vaccine.     

A bioluminescence assay for gene expression by continuously growing mammalian cells: application for detection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)

An in-situ assay for monitoring regulated gene expression in continuously growing mammalian cells is described. This technique can be used for the detection of the transactivator (Tat) protein in human immunodeficiency virus(HIV)-infected cells. Human kidney cells 293, harboring the luc gene, and fused to the HIV-1 long terminal repeat, were isolated and served as tester cells. Tat is supplied by transfection with a tat-carrying plasmid, or alternatively by addition of Tat-containing cell extracts, made from virus-infected or plasmid-transfected cells. Light emitted from the tester cells is recorded on film continuously, or by a photo sensor. Transactivation by HIV Tat results in a pronounced increase in light emission from the tester cells (up to 3000-fold). This assay, which detects HIV-specific gene products, may be used as a diagnostic tool for the detection of active HIV present in peripheral blood.     

An identical miRNA of the human JC and BK polyoma viruses targets the stress-induced ligand ULBP3 to escape immune elimination

The human polyoma viruses JCV and BKV establish asymptomatic persistent infection in 65%-90% of humans but can cause severe illness under immunosuppressive conditions. The mechanisms by which these viruses evade immune recognition are unknown. Here we show that a viral miRNA identical in sequence between JCV and BKV targets the stress-induced ligand ULBP3, which is a protein recognized by the killer receptor NKG2D. Consequently, viral miRNA-mediated ULBP3 downregulation results in reduced NKG2D-mediated killing of virus-infected cells by natural killer (NK) cells. Importantly, when the activity of the viral miRNA was inhibited during infection, NK cells killed the infected cells more efficiently. Because NKG2D is also expressed by various T cell subsets, we propose that JCV and BKV use an identical miRNA that targets ULBP3 to escape detection by both the innate and adaptive immune systems, explaining how these viruses remain latent without being eliminated by the immune system.     

Selective response of gamma delta T-cell hybridomas to orthomyxovirus-infected cells.

A gamma delta T-cell hybridoma established from influenza virus-infected mice responded to a reproducible way when cultured with influenza virus-infected stimulators. Subclones of this line responded to cells infected with influenza viruses A/PR/8/34 (H1N1), X-31 (H3N2), and B/HK/8/73 but not to cells infected with vaccinia virus or Sendai virus. This spectrum of response to both type A and type B orthomyxoviruses has never been recognized for the alpha beta T-cell receptor-positive subsets. There was no response to cells infected with a panel of recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing all individual influenza virus proteins, and so it is unlikely that the stimulating antigen is of viral origin. The alternative is that the antigen is a cellular molecule induced in influenza virus-infected cells. Infectious virus was required for stimulation, and immunofluorescence studies showed increased expression of heat shock protein 60 (Hsp60) in influenza virus- but not Sendai virus- or vaccinia virus-infected cells. Both the hybridoma generated from influenza virus-infected mice and an established hybridoma which uses the same gamma delta T-cell receptor combination responded to recombinant Hsp60. Furthermore, the Hsp60-reactive hybridoma, which was obtained from an uninfected mouse, also responded to influenza virus-infected cells, indicating that Hsp60 may indeed be the target antigen.     

Immunogenicity of HIV-1 IIIB and SHIV 89.6P Tat and Tat toxoids in rhesus macaques: induction of humoral and cellular immune responses

This study compared immune responses in rhesus macaques immunized with unmodified HIV-1 IIIB Tat, SHIV89.6P Tat, and carboxymethylated IIIB and 89.6P Tat toxoids. Immunization with either IIIB or 89.6P preparation induced high titer and broadly crossreactive serum anti-Tat IgG that recognized HIV-1 subtype-E and SIVmac251 Tat. However, the response was delayed, and titers were lower in 89.6P vaccination groups. Serum anti-Tat IgG recognized peptides corresponding to the amino-terminus, basic domain, and carboxy-terminal region. Cellular proliferative responses to Tat toxoids corresponding to the immunogen were evident in vitro in both IIIB and 89.6P groups. Crossreactive proliferative responses were observed in IIIB groups in response to stimulation with 89.6P or SIVmac251 Tat toxoids, but were much less prevalent in 89.6P groups. The truncated 86 amino acid IIIB Tat appears to be more immunogenic than the 102 amino acid 89.6P Tat with respect to both humoral and cellular immune responses, and may be a better vaccine component. Despite induction of robust humoral and cellular immune responses (including both CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell responses) to Tat, all animals were infected upon intravenous challenge with 30 MID(50) of SHIV89.6P and outcome of vaccine groups was not different from controls. Sequencing both Tat exons from serum viral RNA revealed no evidence of escape mutants. These results suggest that with intravenous SHIV89.6P challenge in rhesus macaques, precipitous CD4+ T-cell decline overwhelms potentially protective immune responses. Alternatively, Tat specific CD8+ T-cell responses may not appropriately recognize infected cells in vivo in this model. In view of evidence demonstrating Tat specific CTLs in the SIV model and in humans infected with HIV-1, results in this pathogenic SHIV model may not apparently predict the efficacy of this approach in human studies. The potency and cross-reactivity of these immune responses confirm Tat toxoid as an excellent candidate vaccine component.     

Effects of a temperature sensitivity mutation in the J1R protein component of a complex required for vaccinia virus assembly

Vaccinia virus J1R protein is required for virion morphogenesis (W. L. Chiu and W. Chang, J. Virol. 76:9575-9587, 2002). In this work, we further characterized the J1R protein of wild-type vaccinia virus and compared it with the protein encoded by the temperature-sensitive mutant virus Cts45. The mutant Cts45 was found to contain a Pro-to-Ser substitution at residue 132 of the J1R open reading frame, which is responsible for a loss-of-function phenotype. The half-life of the J1R-P132S mutant protein was comparable at both 31 and 39 degrees C, indicating that the P132S mutation did not affect the stability of the J1R protein. We also showed that the J1R protein interacts with itself in the virus-infected cells. The N-terminal region of the J1R protein, amino acids (aa) 1 to 77, interacted with the C-terminal region, aa 84 to 153, and the P132 mutation did not abolish this interaction, as determined by two-hybrid analysis. Furthermore, we demonstrated that J1R protein is part of a viral complex containing the A30L, G7L, and F10L proteins in virus-infected cells. In immunofluorescence analyses, wild-type J1R protein colocalized with the A30L, G7L, and F10L proteins in virus-infected cells but the loss-of-function P132 mutant did not. Furthermore, without a functional J1R protein, rapid degradation of A30L and the 15-kDa forms of the G7L and F10L proteins was observed in cells infected with Cts45 at 39 degrees C. This study thus demonstrated the importance of the J1R protein in the formation of a viral assembly complex required for morphogenesis.     

Induction of alpha interferon by membrane interaction between viral surface and peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Cells infected with viruses and fixed when viral antigens appeared at the cell membrane induced much higher alpha interferon (IFN-alpha) levels in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) than free virions. Relatively few inducer cells were sufficient for triggering IFN production. Optimal IFN yields depended on inducer/producer cell ratio. The response was peculiar to PBMC as it was not found in other cells in which IFN can normally be induced by free virions. IFN inducing activity was also exerted by live virus-infected PBMC, showing that this type of induction may have physiological importance. These findings confirm that viral induction of IFN-alpha is activated by some interaction between viral components presented at the cell surface and PBMC membrane. Thus induction of IFN by circulating cells infected by viruses and presenting viral antigens at the surface may be an efficient host defense mechanism. Since IFN yields close to 10(6) international units per milliliter are obtained, this system has potential for large scale production of native IFN-alpha.     

Physical and in silico approaches identify DNA-PK in a Tax DNA-damage response interactome

Background

Unlike CD4+ T cells, HIV-1 infected macrophages exhibit extended life span even upon stress, consistent with their in vivo role as long-lived HIV-1 reservoirs.

Results

Here, we demonstrate that PI3K/Akt inhibitors, including clinically available Miltefosine, dramatically reduced HIV-1 production from long-living virus-infected macrophages. These PI3K/Akt inhibitors hyper-sensitize infected macrophages to extracellular stresses that they are normally exposed to, and eventually lead to cell death of infected macrophages without harming uninfected cells. Based on the data from these Akt inhibitors, we were able to further investigate how HIV-1 infection utilizes the PI3K/Akt pathway to establish the cytoprotective effect of HIV-1 infection, which extends the lifespan of infected macrophages, a key viral reservoir. First, we found that HIV-1 infection activates the well characterized pro-survival PI3K/Akt pathway in primary human macrophages, as reflected by decreased PTEN protein expression and increased Akt kinase activity. Interestingly, the expression of HIV-1 or SIV Tat is sufficient to mediate this cytoprotective effect, which is dependent on the basic domain of Tat – a region that has previously been shown to bind p53. Next, we observed that this interaction appears to contribute to the downregulation of PTEN expression, since HIV-1 Tat was found to compete with PTEN for p53 binding; this is known to result in p53 destabilization, with a consequent reduction in PTEN protein production.

Conclusion

Since HIV-1 infected macrophages display highly elevated Akt activity, our results collectively show that PI3K/Akt inhibitors may be a novel therapy for interfering with the establishment of long-living HIV-1 infected reservoirs.     

A neutralization-resistant Theiler's virus variant produces an altered disease pattern in the mouse central nervous system.

Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus infection of mice is an animal model for human demyelinating diseases. To further define the role of this virus in the disease process, we selected a virus variant resistant to neutralization by a monoclonal antibody to VP-1. This virus variant was then injected into SJL/J mice. Central nervous system tissue was compared between variant virus- and wild-type virus-infected mice. Within the brain, no large differences were observed between the two groups as to the distribution of inflammatory infiltrates around the injection site and the number of viral antigen-positive cells during the first weeks of the observation period. In contrast, in the spinal cord major differences were found between variant virus- and wild-type virus-infected mice regarding the number of inflammatory lesions, infected cells, and the size of the areas involved with time. By immunohistochemistry, equivalent numbers of infected cells could be found in the spinal cord 1 week postinfection (p.i.): however, after that time, the number of infected cells in the wild-type virus-infected mice continued to increase, whereas the virus-positive cells from the variant virus-infected mice gradually decreased. Thus, the number of viral antigen-containing cells peaked by 1 week p.i. in the variant virus-infected animals. Conversely, the number of infected cells in the spinal cords from mice inoculated with wild-type virus steadily increased until 8 weeks p.i. At this time (8 weeks p.i.), no more variant virus antigen-positive cells could be observed within the spinal cord. Plaque assay of central nervous system tissue confirmed these differences between the two groups observed by immunohistochemistry. No infectious variant virus could be isolated after 2 weeks p.i. from the brain and 4 weeks p.i. from the spinal cord, whereas infectious wild-type virus could be detected up to the end of the observation period (12 weeks p.i.). Virus which was isolated from variant virus-infected mice still retained the neutralization-resistant phenotype. These studies emphasize the important biological in vivo activity of Theiler's virus VP-1 in determining neurovirulence.     

Stimulation of phagocytosis of influenza virus-infected cells through surface desialylation of macrophages by viral neuraminidase

Cells infected with influenza A virus undergo apoptosis and become susceptible to phosphatidylserine-mediated phagocytosis by macrophages. This study was undertaken to elucidate the mechanism underlying our previous finding that the activity of viral neuraminidase (NA) is required for efficient phagocytosis. Treatment of macrophages, not influenza virus-infected cells, with Arthrobacter ureafaciens NA or virus-infected cells expressing viral NA augmented the level of phagocytosis of virus-infected cells but not of latex beads or cells undergoing Fas-induced apoptosis. Oligosaccharides, including sialyllactose, bound to influenza virus-infected cells and inhibited phagocytosis by macrophages. These results indicate that surface desialylation of macrophages by influenza virus NA modulates the mode of association between macrophages and target virus-infected cells and stimulates phosphatidylserine-mediated phagocytosis.