细菌抗汞分子机制与进化的研究及应用*

微生物中存在一类抗汞细菌,操纵子Mer中的MerRTPA参与细菌抗汞的调控、转运及还原。汞通过MerTP所表达的蛋白由细胞外转运至细胞内,经还原酶MerA将其还原为毒性小的可挥发的金属汞。细菌抗汞基因的形成有着古老的起源,基因间的整合、转移进化形成了Mer操纵子结构与功能的多样性。抗汞细菌对汞的吸附具有高选择性及专一性,可利用此特性对汞污染环境进行修复,也可作为分子遗传操作中稳定的抗性筛选标记。     

汞在微生物中的跨膜运输机制研究进展

甲基汞是一种强亲脂性、高神经毒性的有机汞化合物,可以通过生物富集或生物放大造成人类甲基汞暴露。环境中甲基汞的产生主要是厌氧微生物所调控的无机汞的甲基化。主流观点认为厌氧微生物对汞的甲基化是一种细胞内反应,因此,甲基汞的产生速率不仅与环境中具有汞甲基化能力的厌氧微生物的存在与活性相关,同时也与无机汞在微生物细胞中的跨膜运输过程有着重要联系。要明确无机汞经微生物甲基化的机制,就必须了解无机汞被微生物细胞生物吸收的过程,即无机汞在微生物中的跨膜运输路径。目前研究认为该过程主要有Mer抗汞操纵子转运体系、被动扩散、促进扩散和主动运输4种路径。本综述主要围绕无机汞被微生物细胞生物吸收的这4种路径展开,将系统介绍科学界对这4种路径的最新研究进展,并对相关研究进行展望,指出无机汞经促进扩散或主动运输进入到微生物细胞内将是未来研究的重点。     

一株高抗汞细菌的分离鉴定及其抗性基因的克隆与表达

摘要：【目的】本研究旨在从重金属汞抗性细菌中分离鉴定汞抗性基因【方法】从北京凉水河河床底泥中分离抗汞细菌,采用16S rRNA基因序列分析结合生理生化特征对菌株进行鉴定。根据GenBank中已发表的多种抗汞细菌的merA基因序列设计引物,以抗性细菌基因组DNA为模板,扩增merA基因,并在大肠杆菌（Escherichia coli）BL21(DE3)表达。同时对表达菌株的重金属汞抗性进行测定。【结果】分离得到一株能在含HgCl2为70 mg/L的平板上生长良好的高抗汞细菌,编号为KHg2。16S rRNA     

毒性分子-抗毒性分子系统的生物学作用研究进展

毒性分子-抗毒性分子系统(toxin-antitoxin systems,TA systems)被发现广泛存在于细菌染色体、质粒以及古细菌基因组中。TA系统是由2个基因组成的操纵子,这2个基因分别编码稳定的毒性分子和不稳定的抗毒性分子。毒性分子总是蛋白质,抗毒性分子可能是蛋白质或RNA。因此,根据抗毒性分子的性质和作用方式的不同可将TA系统家族分为5种类型。Ⅰ型和Ⅲ型的抗毒性分子是RNA,能抑制毒性分子的合成或者与其隔离;II、IV和V型的抗毒性分子是蛋白质,能隔离、平衡毒性分子作用或抑制其合成。TA系统具有多种生物学功能。目前研究表明,TA系统可能在细菌应激应答、程序化细胞死亡、多重耐药的形成、防止DNA入侵、稳定大基因组片段等方面有重要的作用。     

铜绿假单胞菌中一个新的吩嗪合成调节基因

[目的]在次抑制浓度四环素条件下,研究铜绿假单胞菌phzAl操纵子的调节基因及调节途径.[方法]对转座突变库中phaAl操纵子表达发生变化的突变体,进行随机PCR、基因测序及比对,确定突变位点.并以发光杆菌的荧光素酶基因操纵子luxCDABE为报道基因,研究基因调节作用及调节路径.[结果]在两株突变体PAM0487和PAM0487R中phzAl操纵子的表达降低,这两株突变体的突变基因确定为假定钼元素转运蛋白调节子PA0487基因.[结论]PA0487是phzAl操纵子表达的一个新的正向调节子,并对密度感应系统相关基因的表达有凋节作用.     

金黄色葡萄球菌sdhCAB操纵子影响持留菌形成机制的研究

持留菌是细菌群体中的一小部分细菌,可耐受致死浓度抗生素的处理,是引起慢性感染的重要原因。金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus aureus,S. aureus)作为常见致病菌,有重要临床意义。分别敲除sdhA和sdhB后,金黄色葡萄球菌持留菌形成水平下降,但sdhCAB操纵子对持留菌形成的作用及机制尚不明确。本研究敲除sdh操纵子,通过酸压力、氧化压力、热压力及抗生素压力实验检测敲除株的持留菌水平,转录组测序检测敲除株的代谢通路变化,高通量微生物细胞表型检测评估敲除株的代谢水平变化。结果显示,敲除sdhCAB或sdhAB后,金黄色葡萄球菌对酸压力、氧化压力的耐受能力均下降;而在抗生素压力、热压力条件下,分别仅sdhCAB敲除株、sdhAB敲除株耐受能力下降。转录组测序发现,sdhCAB敲除后三羧酸循环、甲烷代谢通路及聚合酶Ⅳ等基因表达上调,耐药相关基因、氨基酸代谢基因、糖类代谢基因、卟啉代谢基因及一些转运体基因等表达下调,提示这些通路的基因参与sdhCAB影响持留菌形成的过程。此外,高通量微生物细胞表型检测发现,敲除sdhCAB可降低金黄色葡萄球菌对琥珀酸、柠檬酸、糖原、L-天冬氨酸等64种碳源的代谢。结果提示,sdhCAB操纵子对金黄色葡萄球菌持留菌形成水平有重要影响。本研究初步阐明了sdhCAB操纵子影响持留菌形成的可能机制,为研究和治疗金黄色葡萄球菌慢性感染提供了新的思路。     

乳糖操纵子介导的半乳糖苷酶在转基因动物中的应用前景

细菌的乳糖操纵子可以在哺乳动物中调控基因的表达,修饰阻抑物基因和操纵基因可调控阻抑物诱导能力及其对操纵基因的亲和力,更好的适应高等动物的内环境。半乳糖苷酶对乳糖操纵子系统有正向调控作用,利用乳糖操纵子在转基因动物中可诱导性调控半乳糖苷酶基因的表达,能有效的提高转基因动物利用半乳糖苷、吸收营养物质的能力。以下从乳糖操纵子的结构功能、乳糖阻抑物功能活性的基因调控、操纵基因的功能以及其在哺乳动物的应用现状四个方面,结合半乳糖苷酶的生理功能和其在转基因动物中应用两个方面进行综述,对乳糖操纵子介导的半乳糖苷酶在转基因动物中的应用效果和前景进行了分析探讨。     

蓟运河下游河段中抗汞细菌的生态分布

对受汞污染的蓟运河下游河段的抗汞细菌进行了系统的调查。测定了好氧异养细菌和抗汞细菌的数量,试验了它们的抗汞能力,鉴定了抗汞细菌的种类。结果表明,好氧异养菌和抗汞细菌的生态分布与河水、底泥的污染程度有密切关系。好氧异养菌量决定于COD和BOD_5,河流中抗汞细菌的生态分布决定于异养菌量和汞污染的程度。河水中抗汞菌量与异养菌量之比值低于底泥。抗汞菌量还随季节而变,春季高于秋季。 从本河段分离的抗汞菌经鉴定属于13个属,主要有Pset: domonas和Bacillus,它们分别占总抗汞菌株数的35％和28％。其他菌属有Achromobacter、Alcaligenes、Proteus、Escherichia、Entero-bacter、Aeromonas、staphylococcus、Brevibacterium、Kurthia、Clostridium、Athrobacter,其中大多数细菌的生理特性为接触酶阳性,代谢葡萄糖,利用葡萄糖酸盐和柠檬酸盐,还原硝酸盐。它们能抗5—30ppm的氯化汞,而抗醋酸苯汞的浓度仅为0.03—3ppm。然而驯化后一些芽孢杆菌抗汞浓度提高到200—300ppm。当氯化汞初始浓度为250—300ppm时其转化率可达96—93％。     

呲啶的汞化及醋酸亚汞的制备

在人体内若干汞化合物能杀灭一些寄生虫及细菌,但其毒性较高,其中二价汞的毒性远高于一价汞化合物,有机汞化合物由于较难离解成汞离子而毒性也因之较低。鱼类的寄生虫或细菌是否可以用汞化合物抑制,是否有兴趣的。鱼病治疗中不必如治疗人类疾病时要用到静脉或肌肉注射,汞化合物毒性的顾虑可能也因之较少。     

大肠杆菌应激诱导基因表达谱芯片分析

应激是影响微生物发酵生产的重要因素。为挖掘细菌耐热和化合物胁迫等调控相关基因,揭示微生物应激反应调控的分子机制,采用Affymetrix全基因组表达谱芯片,对42℃热激和0.1 mol/L CaCl2处理的大肠杆菌E. coli基因谱进行分析。结果表明,应激处理菌体中共有583个差异表达基因,包括374个表达量上调和209个表达量下调差异基因;GO功能分类将差异表达基因分为34类,大部分差异基因的分子功能覆盖结合、催化和转运等生物学活性;差异基因KEGG分析显示富集在28个通路,以ABC转运蛋白、鞭毛组装、双组分系统、尿素循环和氨基酸新陈代谢以及Ⅲ型分泌系统等通路为主要代表;应激胁迫的E. coli主要通过噬菌体休克蛋白操纵子(psp)基因进行逆境适应性转录调节,同时伴随着酶和氨基酸的合成基因以及细胞氧化还原态平衡基因的调控变化。     

Pilot plant for bioremediation of mercury-containing industrial wastewater

Mercury is an extremely toxic pollutant that is currently being emitted mainly by low level industrial sources. It is distributed globally through the atmosphere, from where it precipitates onto the surface of the Earth, enters aquatic organisms, accumulates in fish and finally affects the health of human populations. Microbes have evolved a mechanism for mercury detoxification [mercury resistance operon ( mer)] based on intracellular reduction of Hg(2+) to non-toxic Hg(0) by the mercuric reductase enzyme and subsequent diffusional loss of Hg(0) from the cell. It was shown that Hg(0) produced by microbial detoxification can be retained quantitatively in packed bed bioreactors, in which biofilms of mercury-resistant bacteria are grown on porous carrier material. This review describes operation of this system on a technical, fully automated, scale, and its operation at a chloralkali electrolysis factory. It was shown to work with high efficiency under fluctuating mercury concentrations and to be robust against transiently toxic conditions. The gradient of mercury concentration in the technical scale system exerted a strong selective pressure on the microbial community, which resulted in a succession of mercury-resistant strains at high mercury concentrations and an increase in phylogenetic and functional diversity at low mercury concentrations. Clean-up of mercury-containing wastewater by mercury-resistant microbes is a simple, environmentally friendly and cost-effective alternative to current treatment technologies.     

Deletion mutant analysis of the Staphylococcus aureus plasmid pI258 mercury-resistance determinant

Deletion mutant analysis of the mercury-resistant determinant (mer operon) from the Staphylococcus aureus plasmid pI258 was used to verify the location of the merA and merB genes and to show the existence of mercuric ion transport gene(s). ORF5 was confirmed to be a transport gene and has an amino acid product sequence homologous to the merT gene products from several gram-negative bacteria and a Bacillus species. Deletion analysis established that inactivation of merA on a broad-spectrum mer resistance determinant resulted in a mercury-hypersensitive phenotype. Gene dosage had no apparent effect on the level of resistance conferred by the intact mer operon or on the expression of an inducible phenotype, except that when the intact pI258 mer operon was on a high copy number plasmid, uninduced cells possessed a volatilization rate that was at most only 3.5-fold less than that observed for induced cells. There was no need for mercury ion transport proteins for full resistance when the mer operon was expressed in a high copy number plasmid.     

The ecology of mercury-resistant bacteria in Chesapeake Bay

Total ambient mercury concentrations and numbers of mercury resistant, aerobic heterotrophic bacteria at six locations in Chesapeake Bay were monitored over a 17 month period. Mercury resistance expressed as the proportion of the total, viable, aerobic, heterotrophic bacterial population reached a reproducible maximum in spring and was positively correlated with dissolved oxygen concentration and sediment mercury concentration and negatively correlated with water turbidity. A relationship between mercury resistance and metabolic capability for reduction of mercuric ion to the metallic state was established by surveying a number of HgCl₂-resistant cultures. The reaction was also observed in microrganisms isolated by differential centrifugation of water and sediment samples. Mercuric ion exhibited an average half-life of 12.5 days in the presence of approximately 10⁵ organisms/ml. Cultures resistant to 6 ppm of mercuric chloride and 3 ppm of phenylmercuric acetate (PMA) were classified into eight generic categories.Pseudomonas spp. were the most numerous of those bacteria capable of metabolizing both compounds; however, PMA was more toxic and was more selective forPseudomonas. The mercury-resistant generic distribution was distinct from that of the total bacterial generic distribution and differed significantly between water and sediment, positionally and seasonally. The proportion of nonglucose-utilizing mercury-resistantPsuedomonas spp. was found to be positively correlated with total bacterial mercury resistance. It is concluded from this study that numbers of mercury-resistant bacteria as established by plate count can serve as a valid index ofin situ Hg²⁺ metabolism.     

Cloning and expression of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans mercury ion resistance genes in Escherichia coli.

A search of various domestic isolates of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans revealed that some were fairly resistant to mercury ion. A proportion of mercury-resistant clones were able to volatilize mercury, and their corresponding gene was localized not in the plasmid DNA but in chromosomal DNA. This mercury ion resistance gene was cloned in Escherichia coli. E. coli carrying the recombinant plasmid was able to grow in the presence of more than 40 micrograms of HgCl2 per ml. Deletion analysis of the recombinant plasmid showed that the entire coding sequence of the mercury ion resistance gene was located within a 2.3-kilobase fragment of the chromosomal DNA from strain E-15. At least two polypeptides (molecular mass, 56 and 16 kDa, respectively) were coded by this fragment.     

Mercuric reductase in environmental Gram-positive bacteria sensitive to mercury

According to existing data, mercury resistance operons (mer operons) are in general thought to be rare in bacteria, other than those from mercury-contaminated sites. We have found that a high proportion of strains in environmental isolates of Gram-positive bacteria express mercuric reductase (MerA protein): the majority of these strains are apparently sensitive to mercury. The expression of MerA was also inducible in all cases. These results imply the presence of phenotypically cryptic mer resistance operons, with both the merA (mercuric reductase) and merR (regulatory) genes still present, but the possible absence of the transport function required to complete the resistance mechanism. This indicates that mer operons or parts thereof are more widely spread in nature than is suggested by the frequency of mercury-resistant bacteria.     

Development of a biological mercury removal-recovery system

A mercury removal-recovery system was developed for collection of elemental mercury volatilized by biological mercuric ion reduction. Using the mercury removal-recovery system, removal of mercuric chloride from mercury-containing buffer without nutrients by resting cells of mercury-resistant bacterium, Pseudomonas putida PpY101/pSR134 was tested. Optimum temperature, pH, thiol compounds and cell concentration on removal of mercuric chloride were determined, and 92 to 98% of 40 mg Hg l^–1 was recovered in 24 h. The efficiency of mercuric chloride removal from river water and seawater was as high as that observed when using a buffered solution.     

Effects of Mercuric Chloride on Growth and Morphology of Selected Strains of Mercury-Resistant Bacteria

A survey of the comparative cytological effects of growth in the presence of mercury by a group of mercury-resistant bacterial cultures and a characterization of the process of bacterial adaptation to Hg²⁺ ion was accomplished. Mercury resistance was found to be dependent upon the ability to volatilize mercury from the medium and upon the amount of mercury accumulated by the cells. The results indicate that most cultures which adapt to growth in the presence of HgCl₂ exhibit extensive morphological abnormalities. Significant effects are delay in the onset of growth and cell division and numerous structural irregularities associated with cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane synthesis and function. A detailed analysis of the adaptation process and the resulting effects on morphology was performed on an Enterobacter sp. During the period preceding active multiplication, a selection for mercury-resistant mutants occurred. It was also demonstrated that growth commenced only at a specific threshold concentration of Hg²⁺.     

The distribution and divergence of DNA sequences related to the Tn21 and Tn501 mer operons

The mercury resistance (mer) operons of the Gram-negative bacterial transposons, Tn21 and Tn501, are phenotypically indistinguishable and have extensive DNA identity. However, Tn21 mer has an additional coding region (merC) in the middle of the operon which is lacking in Tn501 and there is also a discrete region of the mercuric ion reductase gene (merA) which differs markedly between the two operons. DNA fragment probes were used to determine the distribution of specific mer coding regions in two distinct collections of mercury-resistant (Hgr) Gram-negative bacteria. Colony blot hybridization analysis showed that merC-positive operons occur almost exclusively in Escherichia, although merC-negative operons can also be found in this genus. The merC-negative operons were found in Citrobacter, Klebsiella, and Enterobacter and in some Pseudomonas. Most of the Pseudomonas did not hybridize detectably with either of the two operons studied, indicating that they harbor an unrelated or more distantly related class of mercury resistance locus. Southern hybridization patterns demonstrated that the merC-positive mer operon is well conserved at the DNA level, whereas the merC-negative operons are much less conserved. The presence of merC also correlated with conservation of a specific variant region of the merA gene and with an antibiotic resistance pattern similar to that of Tn21. Tn501 appears to be an atypical example of the merC-negative subgroup of Hgr loci.     

Volatilization of mercury by immobilized mercury-resistant bacterial cells

Highly toxic mercury compounds may come into the environment through the use of mercury compounds as disinfectants for hospital and household purposes, Hg catalyst in industries, burning of coal and petroleum products, mercury-based pesticides and fungicides used in agriculture, and seed dressings. Toxic effects of mercury can be counteracted by microbial cells through the enzymes mercuric reductase and organomercurial lyase. Immobilized mercury-resistant bacterial cells of Azotobacter chroococcum could effectively volatilize mercury from mercury-containing buffer and detoxify mercury compounds. Moreover, the efficiency of mercury volatilization was much greater than with the native cells, as immobilized cells can be reused. Immobilized cells continuously volatilized mercury from mercury-containing buffer after four consecutive 24 h cycles. The storage stability of immobilized cells was much better than that of the native cells.