Underestimated spider diversity in a temperate beech forest

We used canopy fogging to study the high (20–26 m), intermediate (13–19 m) and low (5–6 m) strata in three European beech patches (Fagus sylvatica) in nine months (2005–2007) and estimate species richness and diversity of arboreal spiders. Eight species (10%) were previously unseen in European beech trees, and one of these is likely a new species. Moreover, two species are on the Bavarian red list. Our results revealed that the high stratum of the old-growth trees provided unique resources and possessed the greatest diversity and evenness, whereas intermediate and low strata had high similarity in respect to diversity, dominance, species, and family composition. Since the majority of beech forests consists of mature and young trees in Central Europe, and old-growth forests are rarely preserved, we recommend young beech be used in a sampling protocol for rapid biodiversity assessment. However, adding samples from the two higher strata to the lowest stratum (55 species), almost doubled the estimated species richness (102 species). This suggests that the lower stratum alone does not represent a true image of the total canopy fauna inventory in this, and likely other, beech stands. To complete this comprehensive inventory in European beeches, the Chao1 predicted that additional sampling would be needed in the highest stratum, where there is a high probability to find previously undetected species in a next survey. Our study clearly shows that neglecting the crowns of the largest, tallest trees risks underestimating the overall spider diversity in Central European forests.     

Diversity and ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Armillaria</Emphasis> species in virgin forests in the Ukrainian Carpathians

In this study, we investigated the diversity and ecology of Armillaria species in virgin pure beech and mixed conifer forests (15,000 ha) of the Carpathian Biosphere Reserve in Ukraine. Armillaria rhizomorphs were systematically sampled, both from the soil and from the root collar of trees (epiphytic), on 79 plots (25 × 20 m) of a 1.5 × 1.5 km grid. In both forest massifs, rhizomorphs were present in the majority of the soil samples, with an estimated dry weight of 512 kg/ha in the pure beech forests and 223 kg/ha in the mixed conifer forests. Similarly, in both forest massifs, most of the trees inspected had rhizomorphs at the root collar. Species identification based on DNA analyses showed that all five annulated European Armillaria species occur in these virgin forests, as previously observed in managed forests in central Europe. However, differences in the frequencies of the single species were observed. The predominance of the preferentially saprotrophic A. cepistipes and A. gallica (84 and 15% of the specimens, respectively) and the absence of significant pathogenic activity suggest that in these virgin forests Armillaria species are most likely to behave as saprotrophs. Forest management may increase the frequency of the pathogenic species A. ostoyae, which is rare in virgin forests.     

Impact of a strong typhoon on the structure and dynamics of an old-growth beech (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fagus crenata</Emphasis>) forest,southwestern Japan

Typhoon no. 19 of 1991 (T9119) caused multiple treefalls and created large openings in an old-growth beech (Fagus crenata) forest at Mt. Daisen, in the Daisen Forest Reserve, southwestern Japan. The area of the largest opening was about 1.7 ha (300 m by 70 m). To predict the dynamics of the beech stand after the disturbance of T9119, we investigated the damage to the stand and the density and growth rate of trees with DBH=5–10 cm in a 1-ha plot covering a large part of the largest opening and the adjacent closed canopy. The beech did not regenerate immediately. The regeneration and growth rate of trees with DBH=5–10 cm were related to the frequency of the typhoon attack for at least the past century. In beech forests, small gap formation is the prevailing mode of disturbance. Our results indicate that typhoons affect the structure and dynamics of this beech stand. We suggest that both small gap formation and large-scale disturbance are important for the maintenance of beech forest in some areas.     

Vertical distribution of epiphytic bryophytes and lichens emphasizes the importance of old beeches in conservation

During storms in 2005, a number of beech trees fell over at Biskopstorp, SW Sweden, offering the opportunity to study epiphytes along entire stems. In total 16 beech trees in four beech stands representing three different age classes were included. For each tree, 2 m segments from the base to the top were surveyed. In total 115 species were found (76 lichens, 39 bryophytes), of which 30 were considered to be of conservation concern (22 lichens, 8 bryophytes). For lichens significantly more species were recorded above 2 m in height, whereas more bryophytes were recorded below 2 m in height. Certain red-listed lichens were recorded only above 2 m in height on old trees. In a second data set from the same area 140 age-determined beech trees were surveyed for species of conservation concern at the heights 0–2 and 2–5 m, respectively. These species were found almost exclusively on old beech trees, and presence at 2–5 m was recorded, with one exception, only on those trees which also had species of conservation concern at 0–2 m. Records of these species correlated significantly to microhabitat variables, i.e. the presence of rough bark and moss cover higher up the stems on the old trees. This study indicates that surveying only the base in really old beech forests can underestimate both the number of species of conservation concern and their population sizes. However, surveys restricted to the base in rather even-aged beech stands catch a large proportion of the trees with species of conservation concern.     

Bioclimate and growth history affect beech lifespan in the Italian Alps and Apennines

When site factors reduce growth rates, tree lifespan tends to increase. This study investigates processes leading to such inverse relationship in Fagus sylvatica stands distributed along two elevation gradients, with an emphasis on climatic response, suppression periods, and growth trends. Dendrochronological records from old‐growth beech populations sampled at different elevations within two different bioclimatic regions (Alps vs. Apennines), were used to investigate factors that control tree lifespan. Differences between old‐growth (12) and nearby managed (15) stands were used to assess effects of silvicultural practices on maximum age. Logging reduced tree lifespan not only by removing older trees, but also by reducing the number of years beech individuals spent in the shaded understory. Tree lifespan and growth rates were affected by climate (spring–summer temperature) and were inversely related to one another along elevation gradients. The greatest lifespan was observed in old‐growth high‐mountain populations, and was related not only to slower growth due to a shorter growing season, but also to multidecadal periods of growth suppression during the initial development stages in the understory (i.e., slower growth rates at the youngest cambial ages). Past unfavorable climatic periods (in this case, the Little Ice Age) also helped increase tree lifespan. Using a linear model, we estimated a reduction in beech lifespan of 23 ± 5 years for each degree of warming. Basal area increment of trees with the maximum observed lifespan showed an increasing trend over time. Because growth of old (>300 years) trees has increased in the Alps, while it has recently declined in the Apennines, different bioclimatic regions can have opposite responses to global climatic change. In the next decades, if warming continues, beech lifespan could be reduced in the Alps by faster growth and in the Apennines by drought‐induced mortality.     

Slow understory redevelopment after clearcutting in high mountain forests

Besides natural tree regeneration itself, the development of the forest understory community is highly indicative of the ecological recovery of forest stands post-harvesting, and therefore of the sustainability of forest management. High mountain forests might show particularly slow recovery of the understory plant community because of harsh environmental conditions. We compared understory community richness and composition among three age classes of forest stands in the subalpine Engelmann Spruce–Subalpine Fir zone in the interior of British Columbia, Canada. Species composition was found to differ significantly between mature stands (>110 years old and never harvested) and both recent clearcuts (5–8 years old) and the oldest clearcuts present in the study area (second growth: 24–28 years old). A non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination revealed no unidirectional return of species composition in harvested stands towards that of mature forest; indeed, plots in recent clearcuts and second growth stands were similar to one another and clearly separated from the mature stands. Indicator Species Analysis revealed that moss species were particularly indicative of mature forest, with four moss species being common in mature stands but absent from both younger stages. Compared to what has been reported for lower elevation coniferous forests, e.g. in the U.S. Pacific Northwest, redevelopment of the understory appears to be slow after harvesting in these high elevation mountain forests. Rotation intervals that consider the natural temporal pattern of species turnover and the occurrence interval of major natural disturbances (here: fire) should provide effective approaches to sustainable forest management of these forests.     

Restoration of beech forest for saproxylic beetles—effects of habitat fragmentation and substrate density on species diversity and distribution

The influence of spatial location and density of beech snags on species diversity and distribution patterns of saproxylic beetles was studied in a 2,400 ha forest landscape in southern Sweden. Complete snag surveys were combined with a beetle survey using small window traps directly attached to the beech snags. The density of beech snags ≥30 cm dbh varied between one and seven snags per ha within the study area, corresponding to 1.1–5.1 m³/ha. A total of 2,610 specimens of 180 saproxylic beetles species were trapped, of which 19 species were red-listed. Within the study area, the number of red-listed and formerly red-listed species was highest around traps in old-growth stands, intermediate in managed stands contiguous with old-growth and lowest in managed stands isolated from old-growth by a two km-wide zone without beech forest. Logistic regressions revealed negative relationships between distance to old-growth forest and occurrence of eleven species, among them six red-listed or formerly red-listed species. The number of non red-listed species was not correlated with isolation from old-growth forest. The number of red-listed species also increased with snag density within 200–300 m around the traps. Our results suggest that red-listed species generally have a lower dispersal capacity than other saproxylic beetles. We conclude that retention of dead wood close to existing populations is more beneficial for red-listed species than an even distribution of snags across the forest landscape.     

Native forest regeneration and eucalyptus plantations in the Malagasy Highland

Eucalyptus plantations (EP) offer a number of goods and services that can reduce pressure on native forests. Eucalyptus trees can also be invasive and have a negative impact on native species diversity and regeneration. This article deals with the complex interaction between EP and native forests by studying the case of the humid forests of Malagasy Central High Land that are surrounded by EP. Floristic inventories were carried out on 400 m² plots in adjacent secondary forests (n = 5) and EP (n = 6). Eucalyptus has not spread to secondary forests understory. Native species from secondary forests have colonised EP understory.     

Genetic estimates of immigration and emigration rates in relation to population density and forest patch area in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Peromyscus leucopus</Emphasis>

An emerging pattern is that population densities of generalist rodents are higher in small compared to large forest patches in fragmented landscapes. We used genetically based measures of migration between patches to test two dispersal-based hypotheses for this negative density-area relationship: (1) emigration rates from small patches should be relatively lower compared to large patches (“inhibited dispersal hypothesis”), or (2) immigration rates should be higher into small than large patches (“immigration hypothesis”). Neither hypothesis was supported using data on dispersal inferred from eight microsatellite loci for 12 populations of Peromyscus leucopus in six small (1.3–2.7 ha) and six large (8–150 ha) forest patches. Emigration rates were not lower from and immigration rates were not higher into small than large patches. In fact, contrary to both hypotheses, emigration rates were higher from populations of P. leucopus in small compared to large patches. Based on a combination of genetic and field data, we speculate that higher reproduction in smaller patches resulted in higher densities which led to higher emigration rates from those patches. Rates of reproduction (presumably driven by better habitat conditions in smaller patches), rather than dispersal, seems to drive density differences in forest patches. We conclude that smaller forest patches within an agricultural matrix act as a source of individuals, and that migration rates are fairly high among forest patches regardless of size.     

Growth and survival of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies sachalinensis</Emphasis> seedlings for three years after selection harvesting in northern Hokkaido,Japan

Previous studies have indicated that recruitment of Abies sachalinensis, a representative conifer species of northern Japan, decreased following single-tree selection harvesting in stands with dense dwarf bamboo understory. We tested the hypothesis that growth and survival of A. sachalinensis seedlings are reduced by canopy opening in that type of stand. A 0.75 ha study plot was examined, and all the seedlings (defined as trees with height 0.5–2 m) were identified and their shoot extensions measured for three years after single-tree selection harvesting (26% intensity in terms of basal area). The leader extensions of A. sachalinensis seedlings that experienced canopy opening were greatly improved. However, a negative effect on survival was also apparent; nearly 40% of seedlings died at the sites that experienced canopy opening. These results were supported by generalized linear models that examined variations of local harvesting intensity for individual seedlings. Despite the ability of A. sachalinensis to respond rapidly to exposure, some physiological stresses may have appeared, and presumably were amplified by co-occurring dwarf bamboos. With regard to the low seedling density (156 stems ha⁻¹), common in this type of stands, local harvesting intensity in the selection system should be reduced to maintain survival of advanced regeneration, thus sustaining stand structure and composition.     

Simulating phenological shifts in French temperate forests under two climatic change scenarios and four driving global circulation models

After modeling the large-scale climate response patterns of leaf unfolding, leaf coloring and growing season length of evergreen and deciduous French temperate trees, we predicted the effects of eight future climate scenarios on phenological events. We used the ground observations from 103 temperate forests (10 species and 3,708 trees) from the French Renecofor Network and for the period 1997–2006. We applied RandomForest algorithms to predict phenological events from climatic and ecological variables. With the resulting models, we drew maps of phenological events throughout France under present climate and under two climatic change scenarios (A2, B2) and four global circulation models (HadCM3, CGCM2, CSIRO2 and PCM). We compared current observations and predicted values for the periods 2041–2070 and 2071–2100. On average, spring development of oaks precedes that of beech, which precedes that of conifers. Annual cycles in budburst and leaf coloring are highly correlated with January, March–April and October–November weather conditions through temperature, global solar radiation or potential evapotranspiration depending on species. At the end of the twenty-first century, each model predicts earlier budburst (mean: 7 days) and later leaf coloring (mean: 13 days) leading to an average increase in the growing season of about 20 days (for oaks and beech stands). The A2-HadCM3 hypothesis leads to an increase of up to 30 days in many areas. As a consequence of higher predicted warming during autumn than during winter or spring, shifts in leaf coloring dates appear greater than trends in leaf unfolding. At a regional scale, highly differing climatic response patterns were observed.     

Quantitative estimation of vegetation changes by comparing two vegetation maps

The main goal of our work was to estimate how large the errors are associated with repeated vegetation mapping. We compared two vegetation maps (both 1:10 000) of the Pieniny National Park—ca 2300 ha (southern Poland), the first made in 1966 and the second in 2001. We superimposed—using the ARC-INFO software—a dense grid of points (50 × 50 m) upon each map, and we determined the identity of vegetation unit in each point for the year 1966 and for the year 2001. That procedure was repeated 100 times, each time changing the position of the grid by a random vector. To estimate the size of mapping errors, we compared the patches of communities which should not change their location during 35 years: vegetation of rocky outcrops and local wet depressions, and fertile beech forest, considered a climax community for the Pieniny Mountains. Overlapping small vegetation patches (average patch size below 0.5 ha) yielded highly erroneous results, while the reliability of overlapping the communities with large patches is much higher, exceeding 80% for average patch size of 5 ha. Taking into consideration the communities of average patch size of 1 ha, we can estimate that the vegetation has undergone profound changes: some communities expanded, while others shrunk. The area of meadows remained about the same, but majority of meadows in 2001 was located in former arable fields and previous meadow areas become forested. Among beech forests, we recorded an increase of area covered by floristically rich variants at the expense of floristically poor variants. We conclude that some information about vegetation changes may be obtained only by comparing sequential vegetation maps, but the reliability of the results strongly depends on the size of vegetation patches.     

Characteristics of Night Sleeping Trees of Proboscis Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Nasalis larvatus</Emphasis>) in Sabah,Malaysia

Primates spend about half of their lives at sleeping sites, and their choice of sleeping sites may affect individual survival. We identified a total of 88 trees used by proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) as night sleeping sites on 16 nights from June to September 2008 in riverine, mangrove, and mixed mangrove–riverine forests along the Garama River, a tributary of the Klias River, in the west of Sabah, Malaysia. We recorded 11 variables for each tree, including the species, physical structure, distance from the riverbank, and connectivity with surrounding trees. We compared sleeping trees with 114 trees with ≥30 cm girth at breast height (GBH) located ≤50 m of the riverbank in 8 botanical plots (total 1 ha). Trees in the plots represented the general vegetation patterns of the study area. Choice of sleeping trees did not depend on the tree species. Although sleeping trees included trees ≤46 m from the river, those closer to riverbanks (5–35 m, n = 76) were more likely to be used as sleeping sites. Compared to the available trees, sleeping trees had larger trunks (mean±SD = 143.6 ± 56.9 cm GBH), and were taller (mean±SD = 34.3 ± 8.1 m), with greater number (median = 6; range = 12) and larger (mean±SD = 24.1 ± 15.2 cm circumference) main branches. They were also located near to other trees, with overlapping branches, creating good arboreal connectivity. Choice of sleeping trees by proboscis monkeys is likely to be related to risks of predation and injury from falling, as well as ease of social interaction and efficiency of locomotion.     

Seasonal variation in leaf-litter input and leaf dispersal distances to streams: the effect of converting broadleaf riparian zones to conifer plantations in central Japan

Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) is one of the most important evergreen coniferous plantation species in Japan. Much of the riparian forest that was originally dominated by deciduous broadleaf trees has been converted into sugi plantations. The present study investigated the seasonality of leaf-litter input and leaf dispersal to streams to assess the effects of converting riparian forest to sugi plantations. The seasonality of leaf-litter input was assessed at three streams in Nagoya University Forest. At one stream dominated by deciduous broadleaf trees, input was limited to autumn. At two streams in a sugi plantation, input was prolonged from autumn to early spring, and was dominated by sugi needles from winter to early spring. These results suggest that sugi plantations alter the seasonality of leaf-litter input from riparian forests and affect stream ecosystems. Leaf dispersal was assessed by considering the relationship between leaf dispersal distance from three forest layers to the stream and leaf-litter input into two streams. The maximum leaf dispersal distance was 26–28 m for deciduous broadleaf trees from mid-October to November and 10–12 m for sugi needles from December to April. Leaf dispersal distance depended on the tree species. Four species of deciduous broadleaf tree showed greater leaf dispersal than that of sugi. The mean weight of individual sugi needles was higher than that of the broadleaf trees’ leaves, and dispersal depended on strong winds in winter and early spring. Although the leaf dispersal distance from the understory was within 2–4 m, it could be a significant source of leaf-litter input to streams.     

Diversity of understory plants in undisturbed and disturbed tropical lowland forests of Little Andaman Island, India

Species richness and density of understory plants were investigated in eight 1 ha plots, distributed one each in undisturbed and disturbed tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, deciduous and littoral forests of Little Andaman island, India, which falls under one of the eight hottest hotspots of Biodiversity in the world viz. the Indo-Burma. One hundred 1 m⁻² quadrats were established in each 1 ha plot, in which all the understory plants (that include herbs, undershrubs, shrubs and herbaceous climbers) were enumerated. The total density of understory plants was 6,812 individuals (851 ha⁻¹) and species richness was 108 species, representing 104 genera and 50 families. Across the four forest types and eight study plots, the species richness ranged from 10 to 39 species ha⁻¹. All the disturbed sites harbored greater number of species than their undisturbed counterparts. Herbs dominated by species (63%) and density (4,259 individuals). The grass Eragrostis tenella (1,860 individuals; IVI 40), the invasive climber Mikania cordata (803; IVI 20) and the shrub Anaxagorea luzonensis (481; IVI 17.5) were the most abundant species. Poaceae, Asteraceae, Acanthaceae, Orchidaceae and Euphorbiaceae constituted the species-rich families represented by 6 species each. The species-area curves attained an asymptote at 0.8 ha level except in sites DD and DL, indicating 1 ha plot is not sufficient to capture all the understory species in disturbed forests. The alien weeds formed about one-fourth of the species richness (31 species; 28%) and density (1,926 individuals; 28.3%) in the study sites, indicating the extent of weed invasion and the attention required for effective conservation of the native biodiversity of the fragile island forest ecosystem.     

Tree species richness and composition 15 years after strip clear-cutting in the Peruvian Amazon

Although strip clear-cutting has a long history of use in the temperate zone, it was only recently introduced for timber extraction in tropical rain forests, where it is known as the Palcazú Forest Management System. In this system heterogeneous tropical forests are managed for native gap-dependent timber species by simulating gap dynamics through clear-cutting long, narrow strips every 40 years. As part of an assessment of the sustainability of this system, we evaluated the recovery of tree basal area, species richness, and composition after 15 years of regeneration on two strips (30 × 150 m) clear-cut in 1989 in Jenaro Herrera, Peru. Timber stocking and the effects of silvicultural thinning were assessed in both strips. The strips recovered 58–73% of their original basal area and 45–68% of their original tree species richness. Although both strips recovered more than 50% of their original composition, commercial species had lower basal areas and lower densities than in the forest before the clearing. Pioneer species with high basal areas remained dominant 15 years after the cutting. Silvicultural thinning in 1996 reduced the abundance of pioneer species in both strips, and increased the abundance of commercial species in one of the strips. Half of one strip was harvested by deferment-cut (only commercial trees >30 cm dbh and “other” species >5 cm dbh were cut); regeneration here had greater abundance of commercial species and lower abundance of pioneer species. The low stocking of commercial trees challenges the sustainability claims for this forest management system.     

Lowland tapirs facilitate seed dispersal in degraded Amazonian forests

The forests of southeastern Amazonia are highly threatened by disturbances such as fragmentation, understory fires, and extreme climatic events. Large‐bodied frugivores such as the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) have the potential to offset this process, supporting natural forest regeneration by dispersing a variety of seeds over long distances to disturbed forests. However, we know little about their effectiveness as seed dispersers in degraded forest landscapes. Here, we investigate the seed dispersal function of lowland tapirs in Amazonian forests subject to a range of human (fire and fragmentation) and natural (extreme droughts and windstorms) disturbances, using a combination of field observations, camera traps, and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) data. Tapirs travel and defecate more often in degraded forests, dispersing much more seeds in these areas [9,822 seeds per ha/year (CI_95% = 9,106; 11,838)] than in undisturbed forests [2,950 seeds per ha/year (CI_95% = 2,961; 3,771)]. By effectively dispersing seeds across disturbed forests, tapirs may contribute to natural forest regeneration—the cheapest and usually the most feasible way to achieve large‐scale restoration of tropical forests. Through the dispersal of large‐seeded species that eventually become large trees, such frugivores also contribute indirectly to maintaining forest carbon stocks. These functions may be critical in helping tropical countries to achieve their goals to maintain and restore biodiversity and its ecosystem services. Ultimately, preserving these animals along with their habitats may help in the process of natural recovery of degraded forests throughout the tropics. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.     

Use of species richness estimators improves evaluation of understory plant response to logging: a study of redwood forests

The recovery of native understory plant communities after timber harvest has received a great amount of attention worldwide. However, most of these studies have ignored the potentially significant effects that differences in habitat across forest development may have on the species–area relationship, even though sampling efficacy among forest developmental stages may differ markedly as a result of equal sampling within stages. We examined vascular plant community structure in coastal redwood forests of northern California (USA) in forest patches in each of four forest stages that develop with forest age: Initiation, Closure, Mature, and Old-growth. We also used a set of traditional and novel approaches to assess sampling efficacy and guide our sampling design. We initially sampled 75 circular plots (0.04 ha) in stands within each forest stage across a 1,347 km² area. The species–area relationship suggested we had adequately sampled all stages after the first season of data collection, but non-parametric richness estimators (Incidence-based Coverage Estimator or ICE) and Michaelis–Menten means (MMMeans) rarefaction curves, indicated inadequate sampling of the older stages. Thus, we added four more samples within the Old-growth forest stage, establishing a more equitable sample of all stages. Our full data set demonstrated significant differences between plant communities in previously harvested forests (‘managed’ = Initiation, Closure, and Mature) and ‘unmanaged’ forests (Old-growth). Though several understory species were present in all stages, a suite of Old-growth indicator and restricted species suggest that recovery of some species may take long periods in managed forests. Interestingly, a separate suite of common understory species were lacking in Old-growth, and species richness in this stage was lower than in the mature managed forests. We discuss how this departure from the prediction of peak richness in Old-growth may relate to fire suppression in Old-growth forests. Lastly, analysis of our initial, smaller sampling of plots suggested that Old-growth plots were the least species rich. However, additional sampling of the Old-growth stage demonstrated that Old-growth plots were as rich as Closure plots. This has important implications for all studies concerned with measuring recovery after forest disturbances; stage-dependent habitat-mediated differences that affect sampling efficacy may not be captured by traditional sampling methods.     

Habitat differences affect life history tactics of a pulsed resource consumer,the edible dormouse (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Glis glis</Emphasis>)

We studied flexibility of life history tactics, in terms of habitat-dependent survival and reproduction, in a pulsed resource consumer, the edible dormouse (Glis glis). We compared capture–mark–recapture data from three subpopulations of dormice: one in a homogeneous beech forest (Forest), and two in patches of woodland (Grove/Hedge), with more constant but less energy-rich food availability (e.g., fleshy fruits), over a period of 5 years. The general seasonal pattern of hibernation and reproduction was similar in all three subpopulations. Juveniles were born in only 3 out of 5 years at all study sites, which was paralleled by the occurrence of strong seed production in beech. Reproductive output (number of juveniles/female) was lower at the two sites with low seed tree abundance (Grove: 1.3; Hedge: 2.0) than in the Forest (4.4). Yearly survival probability of adults was significantly lower in the Forest (0.57, CI = 0.42–0.70) than in the areas Grove and Hedge (0.83, CI = 0.70–0.91). Despite their shortened lifespan, estimated lifetime reproductive success of females in the Forest was higher (6.2 young) than in the areas Grove/Hedge (4.8 young). Together, these data indicate that, in more constant habitats (Grove/Hedge), lower reproductive investment was associated with increased longevity. However, dormice apparently maximise lifetime reproductive success by a ‘sit tight’ strategy that synchronises reproduction with energy rich seed pulses in deciduous forests. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorised users.     

Facilitation by herbivore-mediated nurse plants in a threatened tree, Taxus baccata: local effects and landscape level consistency

We investigated the regeneration of a threatened tree, the yew Taxus baccata, in relation to the presence of fleshy‐fruited woody plants acting as seed dispersal foci as well as protecting yew recruits against ungulate herbivores. We seek to determine if local facilitative effects are consistent across landscape in the Cantabrian range (NW Spain). Yew seed rain by birds mostly concentrated under yew trees and beneath hollies Ilex aquifolium. Seedling emergence distributed similarly to seed rain, but first‐year seedling survival was higher beneath hollies. In one site where woody vegetation was structured as nucleation centres (multispecific patches of fleshy‐fruited plants acting as foci for seed rain) yew recruits mostly occurred in yew‐dominated centres, suggesting dispersers‐mediated facilitation. However, holly was the main nurse plant for most of these recruits, considering the nurse as the species whose canopy covered directly the yew recruit. Living beneath nurse plants reduced herbivore damage on saplings and enhanced seedling survival. A planting experiment with yew rooted‐cuttings beneath different spiny shrubs corroborated this effect. Additional evidence on yew recruitment limitation by herbivory emerged from one population where ungulates were fence‐excluded. Our results suggest that nurse plants mitigate the negative effect of herbivores on yew regeneration, by providing defence against browsing and trampling. Shelter ability related to nurse structure, cone‐shaped shrubs with branches at their bases acting better as a barrier. Paradoxically, this structure resulted from heavy browsing on nurse plants. The study of yew regeneration and habitat structure in seven sites provided evidence for the consistency of facilitation by holly at the landscape level, since local values of yew recruitment positively related to nurse ground cover. Range‐scale yew management must consider the local functioning of the interaction among avian seed‐dispersers, nurse fleshy‐fruited plants and ungulate herbivores, in combination with regional measures, targeting the habitats where facilitation emerges.