基于Hi-C技术哺乳动物三维基因组研究进展

基因组DNA在细胞核中并不是呈线性的一字排列,而是以三维结构高度折叠并浓缩成染色质的方式储存于核内,具有特定的高级空间结构和构象。高通量染色体构象捕获(high-througnput chromosome conformationcapture, Hi-C)技术于2009年首次被提出,目前已得到大规模运用,使得人们对于三维基因组学有了更深刻的认识。研究表明,哺乳动物基因组三维层级结构单元由大到小依次为染色体疆域(chromosome territory, CT)、染色质区室(chromatin compartment A/B)、拓扑关联结构域(topological associated domain, TAD)和染色质环(chromatin loop),这些层级结构单元在基因转录和表达调控过程中发挥着重要作用。本文基于Hi-C技术从染色质的三维层级结构划分、构象单元作用以及三维基因组在发育、疾病等方面的应用进行阐述,旨在为更深入地了解哺乳动物三维基因组学研究提供参考。     

Hi-C技术在三维基因组学和疾病致病机理研究中的应用

三维基因组学在基因组序列、基因结构及其调控元件的基础上对细胞核内的染色质的三维空间结构进行研究。染色体的空间交互作用是基因表达调控的重要因素,随着高通量染色体构象捕获(high-throughput chromosome conformation capture,Hi-C)技术及其衍生技术的出现和快速发展,借助Hi-C技术获取高通量三维基因组学数据,对基因表达调控等生物过程进行研究,已成为揭示细胞深层机制、阐明疾病致病机理的重要手段。本文在介绍三维基因组的发展历程和研究技术的基础上,重点总结了近年来Hi-C技术在多种疾病研究、特别是致病机理阐释方面的应用和成果,为深入理解三维基因组学在构建全局基因调控图谱、挖掘疾病致病机理方面的应用提供参考和借鉴。     

染色质构象解析技术——Hi-C及染色质构象信息提取

真核生物染色质在核内的空间组织形式能影响DNA的空间分布,因而对基因转录、DNA复制等生物学过程具有调节作用。目前对这种空间上高度有序的基因组结构的认识还是粗糙的、碎片式的和不完整的。近年,利用染色质构象捕获技术发展起来的衍生技术——Hi-C技术,是一种研究全基因组范围的染色质相互作用以及探明全基因组的三维结构的分析技术。利用Hi-C技术能够对染色质内部或所有染色质之间的相互作用进行精细分析,从而把基因表达调控引入到空间的、全局性的研究层面,为全面解析与DNA有关的生物学过程的机理开启新的契机。本文主要阐述染色质构象解析技术Hi-C的实验原理、数据处理以及染色质构象信息提取,包括染色质内相互作用情况分析、全基因组基因活性分类、拓扑关联结构域(TAD)和染色质环(chromatin loop),介绍染色质构象信息与基因调控研究方面的国际前沿进展。     

DNA双链断裂损伤反应及它的医学意义

DNA损伤应激反应是维持基因组稳定性的基石.细胞在长期进化中形成了由损伤监视、周期调控、损伤修复、凋亡诱导等在内的自稳平衡机制.一方面,借助感应、识别并启动精细而复杂的修复机制修复损伤;另一方面,通过DNA损伤应激活化的细胞周期检查点机制,延迟或阻断细胞周期进程,为损伤修复提供时间,使细胞能安全进入新一轮细胞周期;损伤无法修复时则诱导细胞凋亡.DNA双链断裂(double strand breaks,DSBs)是真核基因组后果最严重的损伤类型之一,其修复不利,同肿瘤等人类疾病的发生发展密切相关.新进展揭示:DSBs损伤反应信号分子ATM-Chk2-p53、H2AX等的组成性活化,是肿瘤形成早期所激活的细胞内可诱导的抗癌屏障,其信号网络的精确、精细调控在基因组稳定性维持中发挥重要作用.此外,HIV病毒整合进入宿主细胞基因组的过程也依赖于宿主细胞中ATM介导的DSBs损伤反应信号转导;ATM特异性的小分子抑制剂在抗HIV感染中显示重要的功能意义.文中重点讨论调控DSBs损伤应激反应信号网络的主要研究进展,及其在肿瘤发生、发展及抗HIV感染中的新医学意义.     

细胞辐射抗性关基因的研究进展

电离辐射能够诱导细胞一系列基因的表达,与辐射抗性相关的基因如ｐ５３抑癌基因、癌基因、ＤＮＡ损伤修复相关以及影响细胞生长分化多种调控基因等,通过参与调节细胞周期,促进细胞ＤＮＡ损伤修复和抑制细胞凋亡等多种途径,最终使得细胞的辐射抗性增加。目前人们对其中一些基因的作用机制已有所了解,而对更多的基因的作用机理尚不清楚。认识细胞辐射抗性相关基因的表达调控和生物功能对阐明辐射抗分子机制至关重要。     

乳腺癌易感蛋白1在DNA损伤修复中的作用

人类乳腺癌易感基因1(breast cancer susceptibility gene 1,BRCA1)首先是在乳腺癌家族中发现的,是具有遗传倾向的乳腺癌和卵巢癌易感基因,其基因的突变与家族性乳腺癌及卵巢癌的发生有密切联系。BRCA1是一种抑癌基因,其基因产物可以参与维持基因组稳定性的多条细胞信号通路,例如DNA损伤诱导的细胞周期调控、DNA损伤修复、基因转录调节、细胞凋亡、泛素化等重要的细胞活动。本文就近几年来BRCA1在DNA损伤修复中的作用的研究进展作一综述,包括DNA损伤诱导的细胞周期检查点的激活和DNA损伤修复两方面。     

细胞终末分化过程中三维基因组结构与功能调控的分子机制

真核细胞中的染色质DNA高度折叠形成复杂的三维结构,其空间组织方式对精准调控基因的表达和细胞发挥正常功能都起着重要的作用。细胞终末分化成熟过程中形态及基因表达谱常发生显著改变,同时伴随着明显的基因组三维结构变化。本文在简单介绍三维基因组多层次组织结构(染色质领域、A/B区室、拓扑相关结构域和成环构象等)基础上,重点综述了细胞终末分化过程中三维基因组结构变化与功能调控方面的研究进展,并探讨了当前三维基因组研究在解析细胞分化成熟过程时存在的问题和前景。     

电离辐射诱导基因的研究进展

电离辐射诱导基因是一类受电离辐射调控表达的基因,其表达随辐射条件和所处生理环境的不同呈现复杂多变的特征。电离辐射诱导基因参与细胞内各种代谢途径,在细胞周期调控、细胞生长调节、细胞凋亡、DNA损伤修复中发挥着重要的作用。介绍了电离辐射诱导基因的种类、功能,及其引起的生物效应的分子机制及应用。     

ATM调节体细胞重编程

共济失调–毛细血管扩张突变(ataxia telangiectasia mutated,ATM)蛋白属于磷脂酰肌醇-3-激酶相关激酶家族(phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase related kinase family,PIKK)成员,是DNA损伤的感应器并将DNA损伤信号传递到下游修复蛋白,从而启动DNA修复、细胞周期阻滞和细胞凋亡等一系列事件,进而维持细胞基因组完整性。近期的研究揭示,ATM参与了体细胞重编程过程,当ATM完全缺失后显著影响诱导多能干细胞(induced pluripotent stem cells,i PS cells)获得以及染色质的稳定;ATM还通过参与重编程过程中的染色质重塑进而调控体细胞重编程。ATM下游的效应因子p53和H2AX(histone 2A member X)等在重编程引起的细胞周期阻滞和凋亡中发挥重要作用。该文重点探讨了ATM及其下游细胞因子在参与调控体细胞重编程过程中的作用机制。     

耐辐射奇球菌的极端辐射抗性机制及其潜在利用

耐辐射奇球菌被誉为“地球上最顽强的细菌”,能够在超高剂量的电离辐射、长时间干旱以及外太空等极端环境中存活,其电离辐射耐受性为人类细胞的数千倍.研究表明,这种惊人的能力来源于耐辐射奇球菌所具有的超强DNA损伤修复能力以及多种高效抗氧化系统的协同作用,使其能够将同一个基因组中同时产生的高达100个以上的DNA双链断裂在数十小时内进行高效而精准的修复.因此,耐辐射奇球菌成为目前研究DNA损伤修复的重要模式生物之一.本文主要阐述了耐辐射奇球菌的起源、细胞结构特征、DNA双链断裂修复机制以及抗氧化系统,展现了其对于极端环境的适应机制,并对其在放疗和基础生物学研究、抗逆调控元件的开发以及放射性核素富集等领域的应用前景进行了展望.     

Sensing of ionizing radiation-induced DNA damage by ATM through interaction with histone deacetylase.

The ATM gene is mutated in individuals with ataxia telangiectasia, a human genetic disease characterized by extreme sensitivity to radiation. The ATM protein acts as a sensor of radiation-induced cellular damage and contributes to cell cycle regulation, signal transduction, and DNA repair; however, the mechanisms underlying these functions of ATM remain largely unknown. Binding and immunoprecipitation assays have now shown that ATM interacts with the histone deacetylase HDAC1 both in vitro and in vivo, and that the extent of this association is increased after exposure of MRC5CV1 human fibroblasts to ionizing radiation. Histone deacetylase activity was also detected in immunoprecipitates prepared from these cells with antibodies to ATM, and this activity was blocked by the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A. These results suggest a previously unanticipated role for ATM in the modification of chromatin components in response to ionizing radiation.     

c-Abl tyrosine kinase is not essential for ataxia telangiectasia mutated functions in chromosomal maintenance

c-Abl is activated by DNA damage in an ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM)-dependent manner and plays important roles in growth arrest and apoptosis induced by DNA damage. c-Abl also interacts physically and functionally with Rad51, a key molecule in homologous recombinational (HR) DNA repair. To study further the roles of c-Abl in HR DNA repair, we generated c-Abl(-/-) and ATM(-/-)/c-Abl(-/-) mutant cell lines from a chicken B lymphocyte DT40 cell line, comparing the phenotypes of these mutants to those of ATM(-/-) DT40 cells that we had created previously. We found that the time course of radiation-induced Rad51 focus formation is abnormal in ATM(-/-) DT40 cells, consistent with the observation that ATM(-/-) DT40 cells display hypersensitivity to ionizing radiation and highly elevated frequencies of both spontaneous and radiation-induced chromosomal aberrations. In contrast, c-Abl(-/-) cells did not show these ATM-related defects in their cellular response to radiation, nor did the disruption of c-Abl in ATM(-/-) DT40 cells exacerbate these ATM-related defects. However, c-Abl(-/-) DT40 cells, but not ATM(-/-) DT40 cells, were resistant to radiation-induced apoptosis, indicating an important role for c-Abl in this cellular response to ionizing radiation. These results therefore indicate that, although ATM plays an important role in genome maintenance, c-Abl is not essential for this ATM function. These findings suggest that c-Abl and ATM play important roles in the maintenance of the cell homeostasis in response to DNA damage that are, at least in part, independent.     

Cellular stress induced alterations in microRNA let-7a and let-7b expression are dependent on p53

Genotoxic stressors, such as radiation, induce cellular damage that activates pre-programmed repair pathways, some of which involve microRNAs (miRNA) that alter gene expression. The let-7 family of miRNA regulates multiple cellular processes including cell division and DNA repair pathways. However, the role and mechanism underlying regulation of let-7 genes in response to stress have yet to be elucidated. In this study we demonstrate that let-7a and let-7b expression decreases significantly following exposure to agents that induce stress including ionizing radiation. This decrease in expression is dependent on p53 and ATM in vitro and is not observed in a p53(-/-) colon cancer cell line (HCT116) or ATM(-/-) human fibroblasts. Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) analysis showed p53 binding to a region upstream of the let-7 gene following radiation exposure. Luciferase transient transfections demonstrated that this p53 binding site is necessary for radiation-induced decreases in let-7 expression. A radiation-induced decrease in let-7a and let-7b expression is also observed in radiation-sensitive tissues in vivo and correlates with altered expression of proteins in p53-regulated pro-apoptotic signaling pathways. In contrast, this decreased expression is not observed in p53 knock-out mice suggesting that p53 directly repress let-7 expression. Exogenous expression of let-7a and let-7b increased radiation-induced cytotoxicity in HCT116 p53(+/+) cells but not HCT116 p53(-/-) cells. These results are the first demonstration of a mechanistic connection between the radiation-induced stress response and the regulation of miRNA and radiation-induced cytotoxicity and suggest that this process may be a molecular target for anticancer agents.     

GITAR: An Open Source Tool for Analysis and Visualization of Hi-C Data

Interactions between chromatin segments play a large role in functional genomic assays and developments in genomic interaction detection methods have shown interacting topological domains within the genome. Among these methods, Hi-C plays a key role. Here, we present the Genome Interaction Tools and Resources (GITAR), a software to perform a comprehensive Hi-C data analysis, including data preprocessing, normalization, and visualization, as well as analysis of topologically-associated domains (TADs). GITAR is composed of two main modules: (1) HiCtool, a Python library to process and visualize Hi-C data, including TAD analysis; and (2) processed data library, a large collection of human and mouse datasets processed using HiCtool. HiCtool leads the user step-by-step through a pipeline, which goes from the raw Hi-C data to the computation, visualization, and optimized storage of intra-chromosomal contact matrices and TAD coordinates. A large collection of standardized processed data allows the users to compare different datasets in a consistent way, while saving time to obtain data for visualization or additional analyses. More importantly, GITAR enables users without any programming or bioinformatic expertise to work with Hi-C data. GITAR is publicly available at http://genomegitar.org as an open-source software.     

Microrheology for Hi-C Data Reveals the Spectrum of the Dynamic 3D Genome Organization

The one-dimensional information of genomic DNA is hierarchically packed inside the eukaryotic cell nucleus and organized in a three-dimensional (3D) space. Genome-wide chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C) methods have uncovered the 3D genome organization and revealed multiscale chromatin domains of compartments and topologically associating domains (TADs). Moreover, single-nucleosome live-cell imaging experiments have revealed the dynamic organization of chromatin domains caused by stochastic thermal fluctuations. However, the mechanism underlying the dynamic regulation of such hierarchical and structural chromatin units within the microscale thermal medium remains unclear. Microrheology is a way to measure dynamic viscoelastic properties coupling between thermal microenvironment and mechanical response. Here, we propose a new, to our knowledge, microrheology for Hi-C data to analyze the dynamic compliance property as a measure of rigidness and flexibility of genomic regions along with the time evolution. Our method allows the conversion of an Hi-C matrix into the spectrum of the dynamic rheological property along the genomic coordinate of a single chromosome. To demonstrate the power of the technique, we analyzed Hi-C data during the neural differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells. We found that TAD boundaries behave as more rigid nodes than the intra-TAD regions. The spectrum clearly shows the dynamic viscoelasticity of chromatin domain formation at different timescales. Furthermore, we characterized the appearance of synchronous and liquid-like intercompartment interactions in differentiated cells. Together, our microrheology data derived from Hi-C data provide physical insights into the dynamics of the 3D genome organization.     

Chromatin Architecture in the Fly: Living without CTCF/Cohesin Loop Extrusion?

The organization of the genome into topologically associated domains (TADs) appears to be a fundamental process occurring across a wide range of eukaryote organisms, and it likely plays an important role in providing an architectural foundation for gene regulation. Initial studies emphasized the remarkable parallels between TAD organization in organisms as diverse as Drosophila and mammals. However, whereas CCCTC‐binding factor (CTCF)/cohesin loop extrusion is emerging as a key mechanism for the formation of mammalian topological domains, the genome organization in Drosophila appears to depend primarily on the partitioning of chromatin state domains. Recent work suggesting a fundamental conserved role of chromatin state in building domain architecture is discussed and insights into genome organization from recent studies in Drosophila are considered.     

Gene expression in response to ionizing radiation: an overview of molecular features in hematopoietic cells

We review the molecular mechanisms involved in response to ionizing radiation in various hematopoietic cell types. First, a general overview of the radiation induced cell signaling molecules in mammals is given. The importance of highly conserved kinases, such as ATM and ATR, as well as the p53 protein for maintaining the genome stability is highlighted. Next, particular attention is given to radiation-induced gene expression in the hematopoietic system. For some hemopoietic cell subpopulations, recent data are provided which might explain the differential radiosensitivity of these cells. Finally, radiation-induced cytokines are reviewed, as they affect the global response to radiation.