Moringa oleifera oil: a possible source of biodiesel

Biodiesel is an alternative to petroleum-based conventional diesel fuel and is defined as the mono-alkyl esters of vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel has been prepared from numerous vegetable oils, such as canola (rapeseed), cottonseed, palm, peanut, soybean and sunflower oils as well as a variety of less common oils. In this work, Moringa oleifera oil is evaluated for the first time as potential feedstock for biodiesel. After acid pre-treatment to reduce the acid value of the M. oleifera oil, biodiesel was obtained by a standard transesterification procedure with methanol and an alkali catalyst at 60 degrees C and alcohol/oil ratio of 6:1. M. oleifera oil has a high content of oleic acid (>70%) with saturated fatty acids comprising most of the remaining fatty acid profile. As a result, the methyl esters (biodiesel) obtained from this oil exhibit a high cetane number of approximately 67, one of the highest found for a biodiesel fuel. Other fuel properties of biodiesel derived from M. oleifera such as cloud point, kinematic viscosity and oxidative stability were also determined and are discussed in light of biodiesel standards such as ASTM D6751 and EN 14214. The (1)H NMR spectrum of M. oleifera methyl esters is reported. Overall, M. oleifera oil appears to be an acceptable feedstock for biodiesel.     

Enzyme catalysed production of vegetable oils containing omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid

Summary The application of enzymatic interesterification for production of vegetable oils containing omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids was investigated. Six veteable oils were used as substrates, together with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, and reactions were catalysed by immobilized Mucor miehei lipase in organic solvent. The degree of incorporation of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid into corn oil, sunflower oil, peanut oil, olive oil and soybean oil were 17.71, 17.59, 16.79, 14.89, 13.91 and 10.48%, respectively, after a 12 h incubation period.     

Production of 7,10-dihydroxy-8(<Emphasis Type="Italic">E</Emphasis>)-octadecenoic acid from olive oil by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</Emphasis> PR3

Microbial modification of naturally occurring materials is one of the efficient ways to add new values to them. Hydroxylation of free unsaturated fatty acids by microorganism is a good example of those modifications. Among microbial strains studied for that purpose, a new bacterial isolate Pseudomonas aeruginosa PR3 has been well studied to produce several hydroxy fatty acids from different unsaturated fatty acids. Of those hydroxy fatty acids, 7,10-dihydroxy-8(E)-octadecenoic acid (DOD) was efficiently produced from oleic acid by strain PR3. However, it was highly plausible to use vegetable oil containing oleic acid rather than free oleic acid as a substrate for DOD production by strain PR3. In this study, we firstly tried to use olive oil containing high content of oleic acid as a substrate for DOD production. DOD production from olive oil was confirmed by structural determination with GC, TLC, and GC/MS analysis. DOD production yield from olive oil was 53.5%. Several important environmental factors were also tested. Galactose and glutamine were optimal carbon and nitrogen sources, and magnesium ion was critically required for DOD production from olive oil. Results from this study demonstrated that natural vegetable oils containing oleic acid could be used as efficient substrate for the production of DOD by strain PR3.     

Dietary oils high in oleic acid, but with different non-glyceride contents, have different effects on lipid profiles and peroxidation in rabbit hepatic mitochondria

The influence on the lipid profile and lipid peroxidation in rabbit-liver mitochondria exerted by different edible oils high in oleic acid but different non-glyceride phenolic fractions was studied. High-phenolic virgin olive oil from the variety "Picual", the same oil submitted to an exhaustive process of washing to eliminate the phenolic fraction without altering the lipid profile and high-oleic sunflower oil (poor in phenolic compounds) were added to rabbit diets. The results reveal the importance of the different oleic: linoleic ratio of the lipid sources on the lipid profile of mitochondrial membranes. This is highlighted by the greater proportion of saturated fatty acids and the lower content in oleic acid (p < 0.05) shown by the rabbits fed on high-oleic sunflower oil. The group fed on the fat rich in phenolics exhibited the highest level of antioxidants (alpha-tocopherol, ubiquinone 10) and the highest activity of glutathione peroxidase as well as the lowest content in hydroperoxides and TBARS. The study provides evidences in vivo about the considerable antioxidant capacity of the phenolic fraction of virgin olive oil in rabbit-liver mitochondria and the important role that this non-glyceride fraction can play in the overall antioxidant benefits attributed to this oil.     

The influence of different oils on the death rate of Salmonella enteritidis in homemade mayonnaise

The death rate of Salmonella enteritidis was always faster in mayonnaise made with extra virgin olive oil than in that prepared from blended olive or sunflower oils. The acidity and the phenolic profiles of these oils differed significantly. The most acidic oils (0·5% oleic acid), the extra virgin oils, also had the most complex phenolic profiles. The acidity of sunflower and blended olive oil was 0·2% and 0·4% respectively.     

Selective growth inhibition of a human malignant melanoma cell line by sesame oil in vitro.

Ayurveda, an ancient and comprehensive system of natural medicine, recommends regular topical application to the skin of sesame oil, above all other oils, as a health-promoting procedure. We examined the effect of sesame oil and several other vegetable oils and their major component fatty acids on the proliferation rate of human normal and malignant melanocytes growing at similar rates in serum-free media. We found that sesame and safflower oils, both of which contain large amounts of linoleate in triglyceride form, selectively inhibited malignant melanoma growth over normal melanocytes whereas coconut, olive and mineral oils, which contain little or no linoleate as triglyceride, did not. These oils were tested at a range of 10-300 micrograms/ml. We found that of the fatty acids tested, only linoleic acid was selectively inhibitory while palmitic and oleic were not. These fatty acids were tested in the range of 3-100 micrograms/ml. These results suggest that certain vegetable oils rich in linoleic acid, such as the sesame oil, recommended for topical use by Ayurveda, may contain selective antineoplastic properties which are similar to those demonstrated for essential polyunsaturated fatty acids and their metabolites. This suggests that whole vegetable oils may have potential clinical usefulness.     

Control of Bemisia tabaci by entomopathogenic fungi isolated from arid soils in Argentina

Entomopathogenic Hypocreales were isolated from arid soils in Argentina using Tenebrio molitor as bait and tested for their biological performance at 30°C and 45–65% RH. Conidial germination was tested in three vegetable oils (sunflower, olive and maize) at two concentrations (1% and 10%) to evaluate their compatibility for further liquid formulations. According to radial growth and germination results, we selected four isolates to test their pathogenicity against second instar B. tabaci nymphs with the selected oil formulations at 30°C. CEP381 and CEP401 showed the highest radial growth. Isolates CEP381, CEP401, CEP413 and CEP409 (Metarhizium spp.) had similar germination percentages as compared with water control when germinated on either sunflower, olive or maize oils at 10% v/v. The highest mortality of B. tabaci was observed for the isolates CEP381 in sunflower oil and CEP401 in olive oil. Molecular identification of isolates was performed using ITS4–5 primers. All isolates belong to the Metarhizium core group. Tested isolates could grow and infect B. tabaci nymphs at 30°C in some of the vegetable oils as carriers, providing new possibilities for integrated pest management of Bemisia tabaci.     

Effects of Two Highly Monounsaturated Oils on Lipid Composition and Enzyme Activities in Rat Jejunum

The effects of two monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) oils, olive oil (OO)and high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO), with high content in oleic acid butdiffering in their non-fatty acid fraction, on brush-border membrane(BBM) lipid composition and fluidity and on mucosal enzyme activitiesof rat jejunum were studied. Animals were given semipurified diet withlinoleic acid to prevent essential fatty acid deficiency (control group)or semipurified diet containing 10% of either OO or HOSO for 12weeks. There was a significant decrease in the content of jejunalBBM phospholipids together with an increase in the level of freecholesterol in both oil-fed rats, when compared to controlgroup. Although the increase in the BBM free cholesterol levelwas not statistically significant in HOSO-fed rats, a significantdecrease in the phospholipid/free cholesterol ratio was found inboth OO and HOSO-fed animals compared to control group. Rat jejunalBBM had a high level of free fatty acids which was increased in BBMisolated from OO and HOSO-fed animals. There was no statisticalsignificant difference in the phospholipid distribution between thecontrol and the OO group. However, HOSO-fed animals showed the lowestlevel of phosphatidylethanolamine together with the highestphosphatidylcholine content and the phosphatidylcholine/sphingomyelinratio. The fatty acid pattern of jejunal BBM lipids was modifiedaccording to the major fatty acids in the oils. There was a decreasein both stearic acid (18:0) and linoleic acid (18:2 n-6), togetherwith an increase in oleic acid (18:1 n-9) in jenunal BBM isolatedfrom both oil experimental groups. All these results were accompaniedby a significant increase in the BBM fluidity (as assessed bysteady-state fluorescence polarization of diphenylhexatriene) isolatedfrom oil-fed rat, when compared to control group. OO and HOSO-fedanimals had the lowest activities of sucrase and maltase, whilealkaline phosphatase activity only was decreased in HOSO-fedanimals. The specific activity of maltase was not modified in anyexperimental rats. In summary, both MUFA oils induced similar effectson jejunal BBM lipid composition, fluidity, sucrase, maltase andlactase activities. Furthermore, HOSO intake resulted in a lowestalkaline phosphatase activity which was accompanied by changes inindividual phospholipid composition. All these results suggest thateffects of MUFA oils on jejunal BBM lipid composition and hydrolaseactivities are most likely due to the presence of high content ofoleic acid rather than other components contained in the non-fattyacid of olive oil.     

Biodiesel production from seed oil of Cleome viscosa L

Edible oil seed crops, such as rapeseed, sunflower, soyabean and safflower and non-edible seed oil plantation crops Jatropha and Pongamia have proved to be internationally viable commercial sources of vegetable oils for biodiesel production. Considering the paucity of edible oils and unsustainability of arable land under perennial plantation of Jatropha and Pongamia in countries such as India, the prospects of seed oil producing Cleome viscosa, an annual wild short duration plant species of the Indogangetic plains, were evaluated for it to serve as a resource for biodiesel. The seeds of C. viscosa resourced from its natural populations growing in Rajasthan, Haryana and Delhi areas of Aravali range were solvent extracted to obtain the seed oil. The oil was observed to be similar in fatty acid composition to the non-edible oils of rubber, Jatropha and Pongamia plantation crops and soybean, sunflower, safflower, linseed and rapeseed edible oil plants in richness of unsaturated fatty acids. The Cleome oil shared the properties of viscosity, density, saponification and calorific values with the Jatropha and Pongamia oils, except that it was comparatively acidic. The C. viscosa biodiesel had the properties of standard biodiesel specified by ASTM and Indian Standard Bureau, except that it had low oxidation stability. It proved to be similar to Jatropha biodiesel except in cloud point, pour point, cold filter plugging point and oxidation stability. In view of the annual habit of species and biodiesel quality, it can be concluded that C. viscosa has prospects to be developed into a short-duration biodiesel crop.     

Process optimization for extraction of carotenoids from shrimp waste with vegetable oils

Shrimp waste is an important source of natural carotenoid. Studies were carried out to determine the extraction yield of shrimp waste carotenoids in different vegetable oils. Highest yield was obtained by extraction using refined sunflower oil compared to groundnut oil, gingelly oil, mustard oil, soy oil, coconut oil and rice bran oil. The extraction yield of carotenoids in sunflower oil was significantly influenced by level of oil to waste (p < 0.05), time (p < 0.01) and temperature (p < 0.001) of heating waste with oil before centrifugation to separate pigmented oil. A regression equation was derived for carotenoid yield as a function of time of heating, temperature of heating and oil level to waste. The optimized conditions for extraction of shrimp waste carotenoids in sunflower oil were determined to be oil level to waste of 2, temperature of 70 degrees C and heating time of 150 min.     

Phospholipid and fatty acid enrichment of Phanerochaete chrysosporium INA-12 in relation to ligninase production

Summary Ligninase activity of Phanerochaete chrysosporium INA-12 was increased when vegetable oils emulsified with sorbitan polyoxyethylene monooleate (Tween 80) were added to growth medium. Maximal enzyme yield was 22.0 nkat·ml^-1 in olive oil cultures after 4 days incubation. P. chrysosporium INA-12 was also able to utilize tall oil fatty acids for ligninase synthesis. An extracellular lipase activity was detected during the primary phase of growth in culture containing vegetable oils. On the other hand, ligninase production was 1.5-fold enhanced when olive oil cultures were supplemented with soybean asolectin as a phospholipid source. In cultures supplied with olive oil plus asolectin, P. chrysosporium INA-12 mycelium exhibited a preferential enrichment of oleic acid (C18:1), phosphatidylcholine (PC) and lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) as compared to lipid-free medium. PC and LPC enrichment was associated with an increased ratio of saturated versus unsaturated fatty acids of phospholipids.     

Oxidative stress related DNA adducts in the liver of female rats fed with sunflower-, rapeseed-, olive- or coconut oil supplemented diets

Both animal and epidemiological studies support an effect of fatty acid composition in the diet on cancer development, in particular on colon cancer. We investigated the modulating effect of supplementation of the diet of female F344 rats with sunflower-, rapeseed-, olive-, or coconut oil on the formation of the promutagenic, exocyclic DNA adducts in the liver, an organ where major metabolism of fatty acids takes place. 1,N(6)-ethenodeoxyadenosine (etheno-dA), 3,N(4)-ethenodeoxycytidine (etheno-dC) and 1,N(2)-propandodeoxyguanosine from 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE-dGp) were determined as markers for DNA-damage derived from lipid peroxidation products and markers for oxidative stress. 8-Oxo-deoxyguanosine (8-Oxo-dG) was also measured as direct oxidative stress marker. The body weight of the rats was not influenced by the four diets containing the different vegetable oils during the 4-week feeding period. Highest adduct levels of etheno-dC (430 +/- 181 adducts/10(9) parent bases), HNE-dGp (617 +/- 96 adducts/10(9) parent bases) and 8-Oxo-dG (37,400 +/- 12,200 adducts/10(9) parent bases) were seen in rats on sunflower oil diet (highest linoleic acid content). Highest adducts levels of etheno-dA (133 +/- 113 adducts/10(9) parent bases) were found in coconut oil diet (lowest content of linoleic acid). Weakly positive correlations between linoleic acid content in the four diet groups were only observed for levels of HNE-dGp and 8-Oxo-dG. Neither the diet based on olive oil (which contains mainly oleic acid) nor the diet based on rapeseed oil (containing alpha-linolenic acid) exerted any significant protective effect against oxidative DNA damage. Our results indicate that a high linoleic acid diet may contribute to oxidative stress in the liver of female rats leading to a marginal increase in oxidative DNA-damage.     

Biosynthesis of medium chain length poly(3-hydroxyalkanoates) (mcl-PHAs) by Comamonas testosteroni during cultivation on vegetable oils

Comamonas testosteroni has been studied for its ability to synthesize and accumulate medium chain length poly(3-hydroxyalkanoates) (mcl-PHAs) during cultivation on vegetable oils available in the local market. Castor seed oil, coconut oil, mustard oil, cotton seed oil, groundnut oil, olive oil and sesame oil were supplemented in the mineral medium as a sole source of carbon for growth and PHAs accumulation. The composition of PHAs was analysed by a coupled gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GC/MS). PHAs contained C6 to C14 3-hydroxy acids, with a strong presence of 3-hydroxyoctanoate when coconut oil, mustard oil, cotton seed oil and groundnut oil were supplied. 3-hydroxydecanoate was incorporated at higher concentrations when castor seed oil, olive oil and sesame oil were the substrates. Purified PHAs samples were characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and 13C NMR analysis. During cultivation on various vegetable oils, C. testosteroni accumulated PHAs up to 78.5-87.5% of the cellular dry material (CDM). The efficiency of the culture to convert oil to PHAs ranged from 53.1% to 58.3% for different vegetable oils. Further more, the composition of the PHAs formed was not found to be substrate dependent as PHAs obtained from C. testosteroni during growth on variety of vegetable oils showed similar compositions; 3-hydroxyoctanoic acid and/or 3-hydroxydecanoic acid being always predominant. The polymerizing system of C. testosteroni showed higher preference for C8 and C10 monomers as longer and smaller monomers were incorporated less efficiently.     

Characterization of a KCS-like KASII from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Jessenia bataua</Emphasis> that Elongates Saturated and Monounsaturated Stearic Acids in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis thaliana</Emphasis>

As the world population grows, the demand for food increases. Although vegetable oils provide an affordable and rich source of energy, the supply of vegetable oils available for human consumption is limited by the "fuel vs food" debate. To increase the nutritional value of vegetable oil, metabolic engineering may be used to produce oil crops of desirable fatty acid composition. We have isolated and characterized β-ketoacyl ACP-synthase II (KASII) cDNA from a high-oleic acid palm, Jessenia bataua. Jessenia KASII (JbKASII) encodes a 488-amino acid polypeptide that possesses conserved domains that are necessary for condensing activities. When overexpressed in E. coli, recombinant His-tagged JbKASII was insoluble and non-functional. However, Arabidopsis plants expressing GFP-JbKASII fusions had elevated levels of arachidic acid (C20:0) and erucic acid (C22:1) at the expense of stearic acid (C18:0) and oleic acid (C18:1). Furthermore, JbKASII failed to complement the Arabidopsis KASII mutant, fab1-2. This suggests that the substrate specificity of JbKASII is similar to that of ketoacyl-CoA synthase (KCS), which preferentially elongates stearic and oleic acids, and not palmitic acid. Our results suggest that the KCS-like JbKASII may elongate C18:0 and C18:1 to yield C20:0 and C22:1, respectively. JbKASII may, therefore, be an interesting candidate gene for promoting the production of very long chain fatty acids in transgenic oil crops.     

Ölpflanzen in Europa

Oil plants in Middle Europe Renewable resources have an increasing impact on industry and technology. Oil plants supply vegetable oil, which is important for our nutrition but can also be used as an industrial resource. Plant oils have many non‐food uses. They are not only used as Biofuels, but can also be found in many technical products including industrial lubricants, hydraulic oils, washing agents, paints and varnishes, and much else. In Europe rapeseed, sunflower, and olive are the primary oil plants. Rapeseed oil is newly recommended for infant nutrition, as it contains a high concentration of α‐linolenic acid, which is an important building block in brain development.     

The effect of feeding rats with partially hydrogenated marine oil or rapeseed oil on the chain shortening of erucic acid in perfused heart.

1. The metabolism of [14(-14)C]erucic acid and [U-14C]palmitic acid was studied in perfused hearts from rats fed diets containing hydrogenated marine oil, rapeseed oil or peanut oil for three weeks. 2. [14C]Erucic acid was shortened to [14C]eicosenoic acid (20 : 1, n -- 9) and [14C]oleic acid (18 : 1, n -- 9) in perfused rat hearts from all diet groups. The rapeseed oil diet caused a three-fold increase and the marine oil diet a four-fold increase in the amount of chain-shortened products recovered in heart lipids at the end of perfusion, compared to peanut oil diet. 3. The content of C16:1, C18:1 and C20:1 fatty acids was increased in heart lipids of rats fed hydrogenated marine oil or rapseed oil diet, compared to peanut oil diet. 4. Feeding hydrogenated marine oil or rapeseed oil to the rats induced a 85% increase in catalase activity, a 20% increase in the activity of cytochrome oxidase and a 30--40% increase in the content of total CoA in the heart compared to rats fed peanut oil diet. 5. It is suggested that [14(-14)C]erucic acid is shortened by the beta-oxidation system of peroxisomes in the heart. The increased chain shortening in the hearts from animals fed rapeseed oil or partially hydrogenated marine oil for three weeks may be an important part of an adaptation process.     

Genetic possibilities for altering sunflower oil quality to obtain novel oils

The sunflower is one of the four most important oilseed crops in the world, and the nutritional quality of its edible oil ranks among the best vegetable oils in cultivation. Typically up to 90% of the fatty acids in conventional sunflower oil are unsaturated, namely oleic (C 18:1, 16%-19%) and linoleic (C 18:2, 68%-72%) fatty acids. Palmitic (C 16:0, 6%), stearic (C 18:0, 5%), and minor amounts of myristic (C 14:0), myristoleic (C 14:1), palmitoleic (C 16:1), arachidic (C 20:0), behenic (C 22:0), and other fatty acids account for the remaining 10%. Advances in modern genetics, most importantly induced mutations, have altered the fatty acid composition of sunflower oil to a significant extent. Treating sunflower seeds with gamma- and X-rays has produced mutants with 25%-30% palmitic acid. Sunflower seed treatment with X-rays has also resulted in mutants having 30% palmitoleic acid, while treatments with mutagenic sodium azide have produced seeds containing 35% stearic acid. The most important mutations have been obtained by treatment with dimethyl sulfate, which produced genotypes with more than 90% oleic acid. Mutants have also been obtained that have a high linoleic acid content (>80%) by treating seeds with X-rays and ethyl methanesulfonate. Of the vitamin E family of compounds, sunflower oil is known to predominantly contain alpha-tocopherol (>90%). Spontaneous mutations controlled by recessive genes have been discovered that significantly alter tocopherol forms and levels. The genes in question are tph(1) (50% alpha- and 50% beta-tocopherol), tph(2) (0%-5% alpha- and 95%-100% gamma-tocopherol), and tph(1)tph(2) (8%-40% alpha-, 0%-25% beta-, 25%-84% gamma-, and 8%-50% delta-tocopherol). The existence of (mutant) genes for increased levels of individual fatty acids and for different forms and levels of tocopherol enables the development of sunflower hybrids with different oil quality. The greatest progress has been made in developing high-oleic hybrids (>90% oleic acid). There has been considerable work done recently on the development of high-oleic hybrids with altered tocopherol levels, the oil of which will have 10-20 times greater oxidative stability than that of conventional sunflower oil. While sunflower breeders work on developing hybrids with altered oil quality, medical scientists in general and nutritionists in particular will determine the parameters for the use of these novel types of oil that can improve human nutrition and be used in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases.     

Influence of exogenous natural oils on the omega-1 and omega-2 hydroxy fatty acid moiety of sophorose lipid produced by Candida bombicola

Candida bombicola can synthesize monohydroxy fatty acid as a moiety of sophorose lipids. The hydroxy fatty acids contained in a major lactone were identified by GC-MS, after culturing with natural oils such as coconut, rapeseed, olive, and soybean oils. Hydroxy fatty acids of C18 and C16 were always synthesized, but differences were observed among the oils regarding the positions of hydroxyl groups, unsaturation, and composition of the fatty acids. A new C17 hydroxy acid was found without addition of oil.     

An olive oil-rich diet results in higher concentrations of LDL cholesterol and a higher number of LDL subfraction particles than rapeseed oil and sunflower oil diets

We investigated the effect of olive oil, rapeseed oil, and sunflower oil on blood lipids and lipoproteins including number and lipid composition of lipoprotein subclasses. Eighteen young, healthy men participated in a double-blinded randomized cross-over study (3-week intervention period) with 50 g of oil per 10 MJ incorporated into a constant diet. Plasma cholesterol, triacylglycerol, apolipoprotein B, and very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), intermediate density lipoprotein (IDL), and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentrations were 10;-20% higher after consumption of the olive oil diet compared with the rapeseed oil and sunflower oil diets [analysis of variance (ANOVA), P < 0.05]. The size of IDL, VLDL, and LDL subfractions did not differ between the diets, whereas a significantly higher number (apolipoprotein B concentration) and lipid content of the larger and medium-sized LDL subfractions were observed after the olive oil diet compared with the rapeseed oil and sunflower oil diets (ANOVA, P < 0.05). Total HDL cholesterol concentration did not differ significantly, but HDL(2a) cholesterol was higher after olive oil and rapeseed oil compared with sunflower oil (ANOVA, P < 0.05).In conclusion, rapeseed oil and sunflower oil had more favorable effects on blood lipids and plasma apolipoproteins as well as on the number and lipid content of LDL subfractions compared with olive oil. Some of the differences may be attributed to differences in the squalene and phytosterol contents of the oils.     

Influence of Exogenous Natural Oils on the ω-1 and ω-2 Hydroxy Fatty Acid Moiety of Sophorose Lipid Produced by Candida bombicola

Candida bombicola can synthesize monohydroxy fatty acid as a moiety of sophorose lipids. The hydroxy fatty acids contained in a major lactone were identified by GC-MS, after culturing with natural oils such as coconut, rapeseed, olive, and soybean oils. Hydroxy fatty acids of C18 and C16 were always synthesized, but differences were observed among the oils regarding the positions of hydroxyl groups, unsaturation, and composition of the fatty acids. A new C17 hydroxy acid was found without addition of oil.