Effects of elevated CO2 and transgenic Bt cotton on plant chemistry, performance, and feeding of an insect herbivore, the cotton bollworm

Effects of elevated atmospheric CO₂ (double‐ambient CO₂) on the growth and metabolism of cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), fed on transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) (Bt) cotton [Cry1A(c)], grown in open‐top chambers, were studied. Two levels of CO₂ (ambient and double‐ambient) and two cotton cultivars (non‐transgenic Simian‐3 and transgenic GK‐12) were deployed in a completely randomized design with four treatment combinations, and the cotton bollworm was reared on each treatment simultaneously. Plants of both cotton cultivars had lower nitrogen and higher total non‐structural carbohydrates (TNC), TNC:Nitrogen ratio, condensed tannin, and gossypol under elevated CO₂. Elevated CO₂ further resulted in a significant decrease in Bt toxin level in GK‐12. The changes in chemical components in the host plants due to increased CO₂ significantly affected the growth parameters of H. armigera. Both transgenic Bt cotton and elevated CO₂ resulted in a reduced body mass, lower fecundity, decreased relative growth rate (RGR), and decreased mean relative growth rate in the bollworms. Larval life‐span was significantly longer for H. armigera fed transgenic Bt cotton. Significantly reduced larval, pupal, and adult moth weights were observed in the bollworms fed elevated CO₂‐grown transgenic Bt cotton compared with those of bollworms reared on non‐transgenic cotton, regardless of the CO₂ level. The efficiency of conversion of ingested food and of digested food of the bollworm were significantly reduced when fed transgenic Bt cotton, but there was no significant CO₂ or CO₂× cotton cultivar interaction. Approximate digestibility of larvae reared on transgenic cotton grown in elevated CO₂ was higher compared to that of larvae fed non‐transgenic cotton grown at ambient CO₂. The damage inflicted by cotton bollworm on cotton, regardless of the presence or absence of insecticidal genes, is predicted to be more serious under elevated CO₂ conditions because of individual compensatory feeding on host plants caused by nitrogen deficiency.     

Influences of elevated CO2 and pest damage on the allocation of plant defense compounds in Bt‐transgenic cotton and enzymatic activity of cotton aphid

Abstract Plant allocation to defensive compounds by elevated CO₂‐grown non‐transgenic and transgenic Bt cotton in response to infestation by cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glover) in open‐top chambers under elevated CO₂ were studied. The results showed that significantly lower foliar nitrogen concentration and Bt toxin protein occurred in transgenic Bt cotton with and without cotton aphid infestation under elevated CO_2. However, significantly higher carbon/nitrogen ratio, condensed tannin and gossypol were observed in transgenic Bt cotton “GK‐12” and non‐transgenic Bt cotton ‘Simian‐3’ under elevated CO_2. The CO₂ level and cotton variety significantly influenced the foliar nitrogen, condensed tannin and gossypol concentrations in the plant leaves after feeding by A. gossypii. The interaction between CO₂ level × infestation time (24 h, 48 h and 72 h) showed a significant increase in cotton condensed tannin concentrations, while the interaction between CO₂ level × cotton variety significantly decreased the true choline esterase (TChE) concentration in the body of A. gossypi. This study exemplified the complexities of predicting how transgenic and non‐transgenic plants will allocate defensive compounds in response to herbivorous insects under differing climatic conditions. Plant defensive compound allocation patterns and aphid enzyme changes observed in this study appear to be broadly applicable across a range of plant and herbivorous insect interactions as CO₂ atmosphere rises.     

Impacts of elevated CO2 on Bemisia tabaci infesting Bt cotton and its parasitoid Encarsia formosa

Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is expected to rise in the coming decades. Rising atmospheric CO₂ levels may alter plant‐insect‐parasitoid associations due to the indirect effects of CO₂ enrichment on phytochemicals important for herbivore and parasitoid nutrition. Tritrophic effects of elevated CO₂ on Bt cotton (GK‐12) and non‐transgenic (Simian‐3, or S3) cotton [Gossypium hirsutum L. (Malvaceae)], Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) biotype B (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), and its parasitoid Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), were examined in open‐top chambers. Significantly, longer egg‐adult developmental duration and higher mortality of nymphs were observed under elevated CO₂ concentrations on both cotton cultivars during three successive generations. However, no significant differences were found in adult longevity, offspring sex ratio, and the number of eggs laid per female adult of B. tabaci fed on transgenic (GK‐12) or non‐transgenic cotton (S3) grown under elevated CO₂. Abundance of B. tabaci adults increased from 10 to 120 per plant and then decreased to 40 per plant through the growing season, but no significant differences in density occurred between CO₂ treatments and between cultivar treatments. Similarly, no significant differences were found in the developmental duration, parasitization rate, and adult emergence rate of E. formosa after parasitizing B. tabaci for three successive generations. Our results showed that the effects of transgenic Bt cotton did not significantly affect the development, survivorship, life span, or fecundity of B. tabaci and its parasitoids. Moreover, interactions between B. tabaci and E. formosa were not significantly affected by elevated CO₂. These results suggest that the biological control of B. tabaci by E. formosa would not be influenced by transgenic Bt cotton and/or elevated CO₂, indicating that the current risk management strategy regarding B. tabaci outbreaks and biocontrol by E. formosa will remain effective if the atmospheric CO₂ level continues to rise.     

Interactions of elevated carbon dioxide and temperature with aphid feeding on transgenic oilseed rape: Are Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) plants more susceptible to nontarget herbivores in future climate?

Climate change factors such as elevated carbon dioxide (CO₂) and temperature typically affect carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics of crop plants and the performance of insect herbivores. Insect‐resistant transgenic plants invest some nutrients to the production of specific toxic proteins [i.e. endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)], which could alter the C–N balance of these plants, especially under changed abiotic conditions. Aphids are nonsusceptible to Lepidoptera‐targeted Bt Cry1Ac toxin and they typically show response to abiotic conditions, and here we sought to discover whether they might perform differently on compositionally changed Bt oilseed rape. Bt oilseed rape had increased N content in the leaves coupled with reduced total C compared with its nontransgenic counterpart, but in general the C : N responses of both plant types to elevated CO₂ and temperature were similar. Elevated CO₂ decreased N content and increased C : N ratio of both plant types. Elevated temperature increased C and N contents, total chlorophyll and carotenoid concentrations under ambient CO₂, but decreased these under elevated CO₂. In addition, soluble sugars were increased and starch decreased by elevated temperature under ambient but not under elevated CO₂, whereas photosynthesis was decreased in plants grown under elevated temperature in both CO₂ levels. Myzus persicae, a generalist aphid species, responded directly to elevated temperature with reduced developmental time and decreased adult and progeny weights, whereas the development of the Brassica specialist Brevicoryne brassicae was less affected. Feeding by M. persicae resulted in an increase in the N content of oilseed rape leaves under ambient CO₂, indicating the potential of herbivore feeding itself to cause allocation changes. The aphids performed equally well on both plant types despite the differences between C–N ratios of Bt and non‐Bt oilseed rape, revealing the absence of plant composition‐related effects on these pests under elevated CO₂, elevated temperature or combined elevated CO₂ and temperature conditions.     

CO_2倍增和转Bt水稻对二化螟幼虫的生理影响

通过开顶式气室研究了CO2浓度倍增(750vs.375μL/L)对取食转Bt水稻及其对照亲本秀水11的二化螟Chilo suppressalis(Walker)幼虫体内代谢酶乙酰胆碱酯酶(AChE)和保护酶(超氧化物歧化酶SOD、过氧化物酶POD和过氧化氢酶CAT)活力的影响,以期明确该类害虫对大气CO2浓度升高及转Bt水稻的生理响应。研究结果表明:(1)AChE受CO2浓度水平影响显著,与对照CO2处理相比,高CO2条件下该酶活力显著降低;(2)高CO2水平及水稻中Bt毒素蛋白的存在均会导致二化螟幼虫体内POD活力显著降低,SOD初期活力显著升高,但不能维持较长时间,CAT活力表现为先升后降的特点;(3)当受到水稻品种、CO2浓度水平和取食时间的综合影响时,以上代谢酶和保护酶活力会发生显著变化。短时间内二化螟幼虫可通过体内以上生理代谢调节减缓受CO2浓度升高和水稻中Bt毒素蛋白的不利影响,但长时间环境胁迫下这种应对不利环境的响应机制将会失去作用,最终导致种群适合度的降低。     

Impacts of elevated CO2 on expression of plant defensive compounds in Bt‐transgenic cotton in response to infestation by cotton bollworm

• 1 The allocation of defensive compounds of transgenic Bt (cv. GK‐12) and nontransgenic cotton (cv. Simian‐3) grown in elevated CO₂ in response to infestation by cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) was studied in closed‐dynamics CO₂ chambers.
• 2 A significant reduction in foliar nitrogen content and Bt toxin protein occurred when transgenic Bt cotton grew under elevated CO₂. A significantly higher carbon/nitrogen ratio as well as condensed tannin and gossypol contents was observed for transgenic Bt (cv. GK‐12) and nontransgenic cotton in elevated CO₂, in partial support of the carbon nutrient balance hypothesis as a result of limiting nitrogen and excess carbon in cotton plants in response to elevated CO₂.
• 3 The CO₂ level and infestation time significantly affected the foliar nitrogen, condensed tannin, gossypol and Bt toxin protein contents of cotton plants after feeding by H. armigera. The interaction between CO₂ levels × cotton variety had a significant effect on foliar nitrogen content after injury by H. armigera.

     

稻飞虱翅型纯系后代个体的翅型分化对光周期变化不敏感

【目的】为了明确光周期和遗传因子在稻飞虱翅型分化中的作用, 研究了3种稻飞虱（褐飞虱Nilaparvata lugens、白背飞虱Sogatella furcifera和灰飞虱Laodelphax striatellus）翅型纯系或近纯系在不同光照时数下的翅型分化比率。【方法】以经过5~45代连续翅型筛选后的褐飞虱、白背飞虱和灰飞虱的长翅型和短翅型纯系或近纯系为材料, 在室内分别测定了其在长光照（16和20 h）、短光照(4~12 h)和正常光照(14 h) 3类光周期条件下饲养后, 雌、雄成虫中长翅和短翅个体出现的比率及存活率。【结果】白背飞虱和灰飞虱的长翅型纯系M♂×M♀或短翅型纯系B♂×B♀在不同光周期下的翅型比率均无显著差异（P>0.05）。褐飞虱短翅型近纯系B♂×B♀的雌虫短翅率和成虫总短翅率在不同光周期下也无显著差异（P>0.05）, 但雄虫短翅率在正常光照14 h和短光照4 h下显著高于长光照20 h下的（P<0.05）。当褐飞虱短翅型达到纯系后, 其后代翅型在6~16 h光照条件下无显著差异。褐飞虱长翅型近纯系M♂×M♀的后代虽有短翅个体出现, 但是雌虫和雄虫的各自短翅率在不同光周期下无显著差异（P>0.05), 仅总体短翅率在12 h光照条件下的显著高于16 h下的（P<0.05）。褐飞虱长、短翅型杂交筛选品系M♂×B♀的雌虫短翅率随光照时数的延长而升高; 灰飞虱杂交筛选品系M♂×B♀的短翅雄虫随光照时数的缩短而增多（P<0.05）, 但当筛选代次达到45代时, 这种趋势不再显著。3种稻飞虱长翅型和短翅型纯系或近纯系若虫的存活率会稍低于长、短翅型杂交后代的存活率, 但长、短翅型品系的存活率在6~16 h光照条件下差异不显著(P>0.05)。【结论】稻飞虱翅型分化对光周期的反应受飞虱本身遗传背景的影响, 翅型纯系后代个体的翅型分化对光周期变化不敏感。     

A male fitness advantage to wing reduction in the oriental chinch bug,Cavelerius saccharivorus okajima (heteroptera: Lygaeidae)

A male fitness advantage to wing reduction was investigated for the oriental chinch bug, Cavelerius saccharivorus, which is wing dimorphic. Field surveys for the frequency of matings between wing morphs showed that the mating probability was much higher in brachypterous males than in macropterous males in the early breeding season. Brachypterous males copulated with not only brachypterous females but also macropterous females in this season. This led to a considerable rate (30%) of insemination of macropterous females just before emigration even in the early breeding season. A rearing experiment for the pre-reproductive period of females revealed that females mated with brachypterous males copulated and oviposited earlier than females mated with macropterous males. These results indicate that there is a fitness advantage to wing reduction in the males of C. saccharivorus in terms of the earlier sexual maturation.     

Effects of elevated CO2 on the interspecific competition between two sympatric species of Aphis gossypii and Bemisia tabaci fed on transgenic Bt cotton

Abstract Effects of elevated CO₂ (twice ambient vs. ambient) and Bt Cry1Ac transgene (Bt cotton cv. 33^B vs. its nontransgenic parental line cv. DP5415) on the interspecific competition between two ecologically similar species of cotton aphid Aphis gossypii and whitefly biotype‐Q Bemisia tabaci were studied in open‐top chambers. The results indicated that elevated CO₂ and Bt cotton both affected the population abundances of A. gossypii and biotype‐Q B. tabaci when introduced solely (i.e., without interspecific competition) or two species coexisted (i.e., with interspecific competition). Compared with ambient CO₂, elevated CO₂ increased the population abundances of A. gossypii and biotype‐Q B. tabaci as fed on Bt and nontransgenic cotton on 45 (i.e., seedling stage) and 60 (i.e., flowering stage) days after planting (DAP), but only significantly enhanced aphid abundance without interspecific competition on the 45‐DAP nontransgenic cotton and 60‐DAP Bt cotton, and significantly increased whitefly abundance with interspecific competition on the 45‐DAP Bt cotton and 60‐DAP nontransgenic cotton. In addition, compared with nontransgenic cotton at elevated CO₂, Bt cotton significantly reduced biotype‐Q B. tabaci abundances without and with interspecific competition during seedling and flowering stage, while only significantly decreasing A. gossypii abundances without interspecific competition during the seedling stage. When the two insect species coexisted, the proportions of biotype‐Q B. tabaci were significantly higher than those of A. gossypii on Bt and nontransgenic cotton at the same CO₂ levels, and elevated CO₂ only significantly increased the percentages of biotype‐Q B. tabaci and significantly reduced the proportions of A. gossypii on seedling and flowering nontransgenic cotton. Therefore, the effects of elevated CO₂ were favorable for biotype‐Q B. tabaci to out‐compete A. gossypii under the predicted global climate change.     

Feeding of fall armyworm,Spodoptera frugiperda,on Bt transgenic cotton and its isoline

Studies on insect food intake and utilization are important for determining the degree of insect/plant association and host species’ resistance, and also for helping design pest management programs by providing estimates of potential economic losses, techniques for mass breeding of insects, and identifying physiological differences between species. We studied the feeding and development of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), on transgenic (Bt) and non‐transgenic (non‐Bt) cotton. The larvae of S. frugiperda fed on Bt cotton had a longer development period (23.0 days) than those fed on non‐Bt cotton (20.2 days). Survivorship of S. frugiperda larvae fed on Bt cotton (74.1%) was lower than that of larvae fed on non‐Bt cotton (96.7%). Pupal weight of larvae fed on Bt cotton (0.042 g) was lower than that of larvae fed on non‐Bt cotton (0.061 g). The cotton cultivar significantly affected food intake, feces production, metabolization, and food assimilation by S. frugiperda larvae. However, it did not affect their weight gain. Intake of Bt‐cotton leaf (0.53 g dry weight) per S. frugiperda larva was lower than the intake of non‐Bt‐cotton leaf (0.61 g dry weight). Larvae fed on Bt‐cotton leaves produced less feces (0.25 g dry weight) than those fed on non‐Bt‐cotton leaves (0.37 g dry weight). Weight gain per S. frugiperda larva fed on Bt‐cotton leaves (0.058 g dry weight) was similar to the weight gain for larvae fed on non‐Bt‐cotton leaves (0.056 g dry weight). The cotton cultivar significantly affected the relative growth, consumption, and metabolic rates, as well as other nutritional indices: the figures were lower for larvae fed on Bt‐cotton leaves than for larvae fed on non‐transgenic cotton leaves.     

转Bt基因水稻对稻纵卷叶螟幼虫体内三种保护酶活性的影响

用转Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac基因水稻的叶片饲喂稻纵卷叶螟Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Guenée)幼虫,采用酶活力测定方法研究了转基因水稻对稻纵卷叶螟幼虫体内3种保护酶（SOD,CAT和POD）活性的影响。结果表明：取食转基因水稻叶片4 h后,幼虫体内SOD酶活性比对照提高了91.5%,与对照有显著差异;36 h后活性达到最大值,但与对照差异不显著。取食转基因水稻叶片24 h后,幼虫体内CAT酶活性达到最大值且高于对照,但与对照差异不显著;48 h后酶活性受到显著抑制,与对照差异显著。取食转基因水稻叶片12 h后,幼虫体内POD酶活性达到最大值,与对照差异不显著;48 h后酶活性逐渐下降达到最小值,比对照下降68.05%。实验同时测定了幼虫体内及其粪便中Bt毒蛋白含量的变化,结果表明取食转基因水稻叶片12 h后,随着大量取食进入体内的毒蛋白随粪便排出,幼虫体内的毒蛋白含量一直低于粪便中的含量,且在24 h时两者差异达到最大。由于Bt毒蛋白在幼虫体内的积累,扰乱了稻纵卷叶螟幼虫体内SOD,CAT和POD 3种保护酶的动态平衡,使虫体内自由基的清除遇到障碍,从而对其产生毒害作用。     

Response of amino acid changes in Aphis gossypii (Glover) to elevated CO2 levels

Effects of elevated CO₂ levels on the amino acid constituents of cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii (Glover), fed on transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Berliner) (Bt) cotton [Cryl A(c)], grown in ambient and double‐ambient CO₂ levels in closed‐dynamics CO₂ chambers, were investigated. Lower amounts of amino acids were found in cotton phloem under elevated CO₂ than under ambient CO₂ levels. However, higher amounts of free amino acids were found in A. gossypii fed on elevated CO₂‐grown cotton than those fed ambient CO₂‐grown cotton, and the contents of amino acids in honeydew were not significantly affected by elevated CO₂ levels. A larger amount of honeydew was produced by cotton aphids feeding on leaves under elevated CO₂ treatment than those feeding on leaves under ambient CO₂ treatment, which indicates that A. gossypii ingests more cotton phloem because of the higher C:N ratio of cotton phloem under elevated CO₂ levels. Moreover, the amino acid composition was similar in bodies of aphids ingesting leaves under both CO₂ treatments, except for two alkaline amino acids, lysine and arginine. This suggests that the nutritional constitution of the phloem sap was important for A. gossypii. Our data suggest that more phloem sap will be ingested by A. gossypii to satisfy its nutritional requirement and balance the break‐even point of amino acid in elevated CO₂. Larger amounts of honeydew produced by A. gossypii under elevated CO₂ will reduce the photosynthesis and result in the occurrence of some Entomophthora spp.     

Response of multiple generations of beet armyworm,Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), feeding on transgenic Bt cotton

Development, reproduction and food utilization of three successive generations of beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), fed on transgenic and non‐transgenic Bt cotton were examined. Significantly longer larval life‐span and lower pupal weight were observed in three successive generations of S. exigua fed on transgenic Bt cotton compared with non‐transgenic Bt cotton. Significantly higher survival rate and adult fecundity of S. exigua were found in three successive generations of S. exigua fed on transgenic Bt cotton compared with non‐transgenic Bt cotton. The survival rate and adult fecundity of S. exigua were occurred significant increase in the third generation compared with the first generation after feeding on transgenic Bt cotton. Significantly lower consumption, frass and relative growth rate (RGR) were observed in three successive generations of S. exigua fed on transgenic Bt cotton compared with non‐transgenic Bt cotton. Cotton variety significantly affected all indices of larval consumption and utilization in three successive generations of S. exigua, except for efficiency of conversion of ingested food. However, beet armyworm generation only significantly affected RGR of S. exigua. The results of this study indicated food quality on the diet‐utilization efficiency of S. exigua was different along with beet armyworm generation. Measuring multigenerational development and food utilization of S. exigua at individual and population level in response to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can provide a more meaningful evaluation of long‐term population dynamics than experiments on a single generation. It is imperative to develop an appropriate multigenerational pest management tactic to monitor the field population dynamics of non‐target pests (e.g., beet armyworm) in agricultural Bt cotton ecosystem.     

Impacts of nitrogen fertilizer on major insect pests and their predators in transgenic Bt rice lines T2A‐1 and T1C‐19

Nitrogen is a critical factor for plant development and nitrogen input is one of the important tactics to enhance the development and yield of crops. Nevertheless, nitrogen input could influence the occurrence of insects positively or negatively. Nitrogen is also one of the main elements composing the insecticidal crystal (Cry) protein. Cry protein production could affect nitrogen partitioning in Bt plants and as such nitrogen input may influence insect pest management in transgenic Bt rice, Oryza sativa L. (Poaceae). To test this possibility, we evaluated the impacts of nitrogen regimes on the main insect pests and their predators on two Bt rice lines, T2A‐1 and T1C‐19, expressing Cry2A and Cry1C, respectively, and their non‐transgenic parental counterpart MH63. The results showed that Cry proteins with different nitrogen regimes have enough insecticidal activity on rice leaffolder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), in both laboratory and field experiments. Laboratory studies indicated that relevant parameters of ecological fitness in brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens (Stål) (Hemiptera: Delphacidae), a non‐target insect pest, were significantly affected by nitrogen input both on Bt and MH63 rice lines. Nymphal survival, female adult longevity, and egg hatchability in N. lugens differed significantly among rice varieties. The experiments conducted in rice fields also demonstrated that nitrogen was positively correlated with the abundance of N. lugens on Bt rice, similar to that on MH63 rice. The abundances of two predators – the wolf spider Pirata subpiraticus (Boesenberg & Strand) (Araneae: Lycosidae) and the bug Cyrthorhinus lividipennis Reuter (Hemiptera: Miridae) – were significantly affected by rice growth stages but not by nitrogen input and rice varieties. In conclusion, the above results indicate that high nitrogen regimes for Bt rice (T2A‐1 and T1C‐19) and non‐Bt rice (MH63) cannot facilitate the management of insect pests.     

转cry1Ab/cry1Ac基因水稻对大螟幼虫体内三种保护酶活性的影响

为阐明转cry1Ab/cry1Ac基因水稻对大螟Sesamia inferens (Walker)作用的生理生化机制, 本研究用转cry1Ab/cry1Ac基因水稻茎秆饲喂大螟3龄和5龄幼虫, 采用酶活性测定方法研究了取食转Bt水稻对大螟幼虫体内3种保护酶SOD(superoxide dismutase)、 CAT(catalase)和POD(peroxidase)活性的影响。结果表明, 大螟3龄幼虫在取食转基因水稻24 h后SOD活性与对照相比提高了43.44%, 48 h后降至最低值; 在取食24 h后POD值达到最高值, 其酶活性比对照升高了29.22%, 最终在取食48 h后降至最低值, 并显著低于对照; 在取食转基因水稻4 h后, CAT活性升高了30.33%, 在取食48 h后, 与对照相比, CAT活性降低了27.01%; 5龄幼虫取食4 h后SOD活性显著高于对照水平, 36 h后降至最低值, 与对照相比, 活性下降了31.62%; 在取食8 h后POD活性达到最高值, 与对照相比, 升高了73.20%, 36 h后酶活性降至最低值; 在取食之初4 h CAT活性达到最高值, 与对照相比, 其值升高了75.73%, 在取食48 h后, 其活性与对照相比减少了7.55%。3龄幼虫与5龄幼虫相比, 对Bt的抗性水平较低, 自身防卫能力较差。结果说明, 在取食初期, 试虫体内保护酶活性升高, 以抵御Bt毒蛋白对虫体的伤害作用, 随着取食时间的延长, 保护酶活性迅速降低, 从而干扰虫体正常的代谢过程, 导致虫体出现中毒症状, 致使昆虫死亡。     

Locomotor activity in adult Pyrrhocoris apterus (Heteroptera) in relation to sex, physiological status and wing dimorphism

The pattern of locomotor (walking) activity was studied in adult males and females of short‐winged (brachypterous) and long‐winged (macropterous) morph of the flightless bug Pyrrhocoris apterus (Linnaeus) (Heteroptera: Pyrrhocoridae) under constant laboratory conditions. Walking activity was measured with a computerized video system and analysed with respect to sex, physiological status (reproduction, diapause and reproductive arrest of non‐diapause type) and wing dimorphism of the bugs. The largest duration was observed in the macropterous females with reproductive arrest of non‐diapause type (average 6 h per day) and the shortest duration in diapausing brachypterous females and males (average less than 2 h per day). This was reflected also in the overall time spent by walking during the first 14 days after imaginal ecdysis. The time spent by walking significantly increased in the macropterous morph as the bugs aged, whereas in diapausing brachypters the time spent by walking decreased with age. No linear relationship between walking activity and age was found in reproductive brachypterous morph. The bugs of all experimental groups moved mostly during the photophase and were almost inactive during the scotophase. Thus, walking activity in P. apterus is diurnal, irrespective of the wing morph, physiological status, sex and age. Contrary to the macropterous morph, where the locomotor activity of females during photophase was significantly higher than in males, no significant differences were found between the locomotor activities of brachypterous males and females. The observed differences in locomotor activity are discussed in relation to different roles of two wing morphs in the life history of this heteropteran.     

Photoprotective effects of high level expression of C<Subscript>4</Subscript> phospho<Emphasis Type="Italic">enol</Emphasis>pyruvate carboxylase in transgenic rice during photoinhibition

With untransformed rice cv. Kitaake as control, the characteristics of carbon assimilation and photoprotection of a transgenic rice line over-expressing maize phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC) were investigated. The PEPC activity in untransformed rice was low, but the activity was stimulated under high irradiance or photoinhibitory condition. PEPC in untransformed rice contributed by about 5–10 % to photosynthesis, as shown by the application of the specific inhibitor 3,3-dichloro-2-(dihydroxyphosphinoylmethyl)propenoate (DCDP). When maize PEPC gene was introduced into rice, transgenic rice expressed high amount of maize PEPC protein and had high PEPC activity. Simultaneously, the activity of carbonic anhydrase (CA) transporting CO₂ increased significantly. Thus the photosynthetic capacity increased greatly (50 %) under high CO₂ supply. In CO₂-free air, CO₂ release in the leaf was less. In addition, PEPC transgenic rice was more tolerant to photoinhibition. Treating by NaF, an inhibitor of phosphatase, showed that in transgenic rice more phosphorylated light-harvesting chlorophyll a/b-binding complexes (LHC) moved to photosystem 1 (PS1) protecting thus PS2 from photo-damage. Simultaneously, the introduction of maize PEPC gene could activate or induce activities of the key enzymes scavenging active oxygen, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidase (POD). Hence higher PS2 photochemical efficiency and lower superoxygen anion (O₂ ^·−) generation and malonyldiadehyde (MDA) content under photoinhibition could improve protection from photo-oxidation.     

Cover Caption

The brown planthopper (BPH) is the most important insect pest of rice in Asia. This specialist herbivore feeds on the phloem of the rice plant. Heavy infestations of BPH cause ‘hopperburn’, which can result in dramatic yield loss and eventually lead to death of the plant. BPH is dimorphic, with fully winged ‘macropterous’ (blackish‐brown color) and truncate‐winged ‘brachypterous’ (brown color) forms. The macropterous are potentially migrants. Pattern identification of trace elements in BPH bodies is feasible for determining the source area of its immigration. See pages 21–29. Photo provided by Qi‐Yi Tang and Sheng‐Guang Xia.     

Transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) allomone response to cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, in a closed-dynamics CO(2) chamber (CDCC)

Allocation of allomones of transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis Gossypium hirsutum (Bt cotton) (cv. GK-12) and non-Bt-transgenic cotton (cv. Simian-3) grown in elevated CO₂ in response to infestation by cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii Glover, was studied in a closed-dynamics CO₂ chamber. Significant increases in foliar condensed tannin and carbon/nitrogen ratio for GK-12 and Simian-3 were observed in elevated CO₂ relative to ambient CO_2, as partially supported by the carbon nutrient balance hypothesis, owing to limiting nitrogen and excess carbon in cotton plants in response to elevated CO₂. The CO₂ level significantly influenced the foliar nutrients and allomones in the cotton plants. Aphid infestation significantly affected foliar nitrogen and allomone compounds in the cotton plants. Allomone allocation patterns in transgenic Bt cotton infested by A. gossypii may have broader implications across a range of plant and herbivorous insects as CO₂ continues to rise. Gang Wu and Fa Jun Chen contributed equally to this work.     

Sublethal effects of abamectin on the development,fecundity, and wing morphs of the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens

The brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens negatively affects rice yield by sucking nutrients from the rice stem and spreading viruses. In this study, the effects of sublethal concentrations of abamectin on development, fecundity, and wing morphs of N. lugens were investigated. Treatment with sublethal concentrations of abamectin showed no significant effects on the developmental period of F₀ nymphs. Although LC₁₀ and LC₂₅ treatments resulted in 10% and 25% mortality, the LC₂₅ treatment significantly prolonged the lifespan of macropterous and brachypterous females. Abamectin-treated brachypterous females showed significantly lower fecundity than control females. Furthermore, abamectin treatment showed no significant effects on the developmental period of F₁ nymphs. However, LC₂₅ treatment significantly inhibited the fecundity of brachypterous F₁ females and significantly reduced the proportion of macropterous F₁ females and brachypterous F₁ males. LC₂₅ treatment showed no significant effects on the fecundity of macropterous F₁ females. Considering the proportion of macropterous and brachypterous F₁ females, the relative fitness of the macropterous F₁ nymphs in the control, LC₁₀, and LC₂₅ treatment groups was 1, 1.02, and 0.84, respectively, and that of brachypterous F₁ nymphs was 1, 0.79, and 0.93, respectively. Sublethal concentrations of abamectin inhibited N. lugens emergence. The present findings indicate the potential of abamectin for N. lugens field control.