p16INK4a/p19Arf与年龄相关性胰岛β细胞功能

2型糖尿病是一种与年龄密切相关的疾病,随着年龄增加,胰岛β细胞增殖能力和分泌能力下降,糖尿病患病率明显增加,但其机制尚不清楚. 最近研究发现,细胞周期蛋白依赖激酶(cyclin-dependent kinase, CDK)抑制剂p16INK4a是引起胰岛β细胞年龄相关性老化的重要调控因子.研究表明,通过p16INK4a介导的胰岛老化机制可能有如下两个：p38MAPK(mitogen-activated protein kinase)途径和PDGFR(platelet-derived growth factor receptor) 途径,两者均引起p16ink4a及p19ARF表达增加,而损害胰岛细胞增殖.本文综述年龄相关性胰岛β细胞功能下降的潜在机制,从而为改善胰岛β细胞功能提供新的分子靶点.     

柯萨奇B4病毒在体外对小鼠胰岛素分泌功能的影响

柯萨奇B4病毒（CB4V）感染被认为和胰岛素依赖型糖尿病（IDDM）的发病有关。我们对体外培养的小巴胰岛和胰岛细胞经CB4V感染后,检测其胰岛素分泌功能。结果显示,病毒感染组的胰岛包膜的消失较对照组早;糖刺激的胰岛素释放量明显低于对照组,但CB4V并不引起胰岛细胞的溶解。这表明：（1）CB4V可在体外感染小鼠胰岛和胰岛细胞。（2）CB4V可损害胰岛β－细胞合成胰岛素的功能。     

Exendin-4类似物的克隆、表达与体内生物活性检测

为研究Exendin-4类似物的克隆,融合表达及在体内的生物活性,在pED载体融合伴侣序列中插入利于下游分离纯化的序列成为5#载体,将Exendin-4类似物基因与5#载体中的融合伴侣基因通过酸水解位点连接,转化至E.coli BL21中并诱导表达融合蛋白,酸水解将目的肽与融合伴侣分开后,经阴离子交换树脂分离得到目的肽。6周～8周正常雄性ICR小鼠皮下注射Exendin-4类似物后,口服糖耐量实验检测在不同时间段小鼠血液中葡萄糖及胰岛素含量的变化。结果表明:融合蛋白的表达量占菌体总蛋白的40%,Exendin-4类似物纯度达91.8%。Exendin-4类似物的活性与对照组相比,具有显著的降低血糖和显著促进胰岛素分泌的活性(P<0.01)。     

胰高血糖素样多肽-1拮抗2型糖尿病胰岛细胞凋亡损伤

胰高血糖素样多肽-1（glucogen like peptide 1, GLP-1）在胰岛素分泌过程中扮演重要角色,并在改善β细胞功能方面有着令人瞩目的效应,但有关其作用机制尚需更深入研究。本研究探讨GLP-1对2型糖尿病（type 2 diabetes mellitus, T2DM）大鼠模型胰岛细胞损伤的影响,观察GLP-1在T2DM大鼠胰岛细胞凋亡损伤机制中所发挥的作用。HE染色结果发现,糖尿病大鼠胰岛损伤。ELISA结果表明,糖尿病患者和糖尿病大鼠血清中GLP-1表达水平上调。放射免疫结果表明,GLP-1和谷氧还蛋白1（Grx1）促进HIT-T 15细胞分泌胰岛素,Cd抑制胰岛素的分泌。免疫组化结果表明,糖尿病大鼠GLP-1加药处理后,各组与糖尿病组相比,药物提高了Grx1和胰岛素表达水平,降低了胰高血糖素表达水平,同时降低了活性胱天蛋白酶3（caspase-3）的表达。本研究结果提示,GLP-1在肥胖T2DM大鼠胰岛细胞凋亡中起保护作用,同时可调节胰岛素和胰高血糖素水平,其机制可能与Grx1相关     

血红素加氧酶／一氧化碳系统在1，6-二磷酸果糖抗IL-1β致胰岛细胞凋亡中的作用

目的：探讨1,6-二磷酸果糖（FDP）对白介素-1β（IL-1β）致胰岛细胞凋亡的保护作用及其机制与血红素加氧酶／一氧化碳（HO-1／CO）系统的关系。方法：应用离体培养乳鼠的胰岛细胞,分别检测IL-1β、FDP作用后细胞形态、细胞活性、细胞凋亡率、细胞HO-1的活性和细胞培养上清液中胰岛素的基础和高糖刺激分泌量以及CO的含量的变化,同时设立正常对照组。结果：正常胰岛细胞HO-1活性较低,CO含量少,凋亡细胞率为4．71±0．62。IL-1β作用20h后,与正常组比较胰岛细胞活性明显降低,基础和高糖刺激胰岛素分泌减少,胰岛细胞凋亡率明显增加（P〈0．01）;细胞HO-1活性有所增加,上清液中CO生成增多（P〈0．05）,损伤后与FDP共同孵育细胞活性显著升高,胰岛素基础和高糖分泌量增多,胰岛凋亡率明显降低,HO-1活性和CO生成显著提高（P〈0．01）,具有统计学意义。结论：FDP能降低IL-1β诱导胰岛细胞的凋亡,改善细胞活性,促进细胞的分泌功能,机制可能与FDP增加HO-1活性,从而CO生成增多有关。     

ATP合成下降在β细胞胰岛素分泌障碍中的作用

胰岛β细胞胰岛素分泌过程是受多种因素协调精确控制的,ATP合成酶在这一调控网络中起着重要作用.高糖、高脂及炎症细胞因子,通过不同的信号通路,引起线粒体膜电位改变及/或ATP合成酶核心亚基表达下降,导致ATP合成速率下降,是β胰岛素分泌障碍发生的共同核心环节,在2型糖尿病病理生理过程中起了关键性作用.糖尿病动物胰岛β细胞内的ATP含量较正常β细胞明显降低,而上调2型糖尿病患者胰岛细胞ATP合成酶β亚基表达能提高ATP合成速率,增加细胞ATP含量并逆转损伤的胰岛素分泌功能.目前的研究提示,亮氨酸、肠抑素(enterostatin)及过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体γ(PPAR-γ)能通过调控ATP合成酶β亚基表达或活性提高细胞ATP合成速率,这为改善β细胞功能障碍提供了新的思路和信息.     

我国干细胞治疗糖尿病的基础与临床研究

胰岛β细胞功能衰竭和胰岛素抵抗是导致糖尿病发生发展的主要机制,目前的抗糖尿病药物没有针对糖尿病发病的关键环节,只能解除或缓解症状,延缓疾病进展,不能从根本上治愈该疾病.干细胞通过促进胰岛β细胞原位再生,提高胰岛β细胞自噬能力、调节胰岛巨噬细胞功能修复受损的胰岛β细胞以改善胰岛β细胞功能;通过多种途径活化骨骼肌、脂肪和肝脏IRS(1)-AKT-GLUT4信号通路改善外周组织胰岛素抵抗,为糖尿病的精准治疗提供了新的方向.我国研究者针对不同来源的干细胞使用不同输注方式治疗1型糖尿病和2型糖尿病开展了系列研究,取得了良好的临床疗效,且未发生严重不良反应,为干细胞治疗糖尿病的临床应用奠定了基础.     

枸杞多糖对四氧嘧啶损伤的大鼠胰岛细胞的保护作用

报道了枸杞多糖(Lb-PS)对4mmol／L四氧嘧啶(AXN)损伤的离体培养的大鼠胰岛细胞的保护作用。实验分为正常对照素、AXN损伤组和Lb-PS保护组。采用放射免疫分析法测定胰岛细胞内胰岛素水平以及葡萄糖刺激的胰岛素释放水平。分光光度比色法测定细胞内SOD和葡萄糖激酶的活性,以及培养基中NO和MDA的含量。结果表明,AXN显著抑制细胞内的胰岛素合成和葡萄糖刺激的胰岛素释放,以及SOD和葡萄糖激酶的活性。AXN促使培养基中N0和MDA浓度的显著增加。在同时加入AxN和105～102mg／ml Lb—PS的实验组中,均发现能不同程度地保护胰岛细胞免受AXN的损伤。Lb-PS能恢复AXN损伤的胰岛细胞的胰岛素合成和释放水平,以及SOD和葡萄糖激酶的活性,使其基本达到正常对照组的水平。Lb-PS还能降低培养基中NO和MDA的浓度。因此,Lb-PS可能通过减少胰岛β细胞的NO产量和维持SOD和葡萄糖激酶的活性,最终起到保护胰岛素合成和释放功能的作用。     

一种高效经济的小鼠胰岛细胞分离纯化新技术

目的:建立一种经济高效的小鼠胰岛细胞分离纯化方法,为进行NOD小鼠的胰岛移植提供实验条件.方法:将5-7周龄、体重20～25 g的雄,陛昆明小鼠的胆总管结扎,并逆行Hank's液和胶原酶P灌注和分离消化,依次加入84%、67%、50%浓度的Histopaque介质后进行不连续密度梯度离心纯化胰岛细胞.双硫腙(dithizon,DTZ)和台盼兰染色分别鉴定胰岛细胞.用含5.6mmol/L葡萄糖DMEM培养液体外培养胰岛细胞,培养后的第3、5、7、9、11天取细胞上清检测胰岛素水平,并用16.7mmol/L的高浓度葡萄糖进行刺激,检测胰岛素水平确定胰岛细胞功能.结果:每个胰腺的胰岛细胞收获量在1200±124个,且纯度和活性均大于90%;体外培养9天内胰岛细胞基础胰岛素分泌水平无显著差异,至第11天时则明显减少(P＜0.05);应用16.7mmol/L葡萄糖刺激后,第5、7、9、11天的胰岛素分泌水平较第3天的明显减少(P＜0.05),然而在第7天、9天、11天时的胰岛素水平较第5天时显著降低.结论:胆总管逆行注射Hank's液和胶原酶P消化消化和不连续密度梯度Histopaque纯化的方法可以获得大量状态良好的胰岛,且胰岛细胞数量多,分泌状态良好.本分离方法是一种经济高效的胰岛细胞分离方法,同时离体后于5.6mmol/L葡萄糖DMEM培养第3天胰岛细胞胰岛素储备功能最佳,为移植研究的最佳状态.     

干预脂毒性改善糖尿病大鼠胰岛素分泌及氧化应激的损害

目的探讨干预脂毒性改善糖尿病大鼠胰岛分泌功能及氧化应激损害的机制。方法将大鼠分为4组①正常组（NC）,全程普通饲料喂养;②高脂组（HF）,全程高脂饲料喂养。糖尿病组,高脂饲料喂养8周后腹腔注射低剂量STZ（30mg/kg）,48h后行OGTT试验判断成模情况后分组。③糖尿病对照组（DM）,不给予药物干预;④血脂干预组（SIM）,灌胃辛伐他汀5mg/（kg.d）4周干预脂毒性。通过免疫组化染色观察胰岛B、A细胞形态学特点,RT-PCR测定胰腺内胰岛素原mRNA表达水平,DHE荧光染色检测胰岛中活性氧化产物ROS水平。结果与糖尿病对照组相比,干预脂毒性4周后血清胆固醇（TC）和甘油三酯（TG）水平分别下降了22.9%（P〈0.01）和57.0%（P〈0.05）。OGTT血糖水平均显著下降（P〈0.01）。胰岛中B细胞相对量是对照组的2.6倍（P〈0.01）,B细胞胞质内胰岛素水平增加了26.5%（P〈0.05）,胰岛素原mRNA表达升高18.3%（P〈0.01）;A细胞相对量减少了50%（P〈0.01）。血清丙二醛（MDA）水平和胰腺中ROS表达显著下降。结论辛伐他汀干预脂毒性4周可以显著改善糖尿病大鼠胰岛分泌功能和氧化应激损害。     

Exendin-4 Protects Mitochondria from Reactive Oxygen Species Induced Apoptosis in Pancreatic Beta Cells

Objective

Mitochondrial oxidative stress is the basis for pancreatic β-cell apoptosis and a common pathway for numerous types of damage, including glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity. We cultivated mice pancreatic β-cell tumor Min6 cell lines in vitro and observed pancreatic β-cell apoptosis and changes in mitochondrial function before and after the addition of Exendin-4. Based on these observations, we discuss the protective role of Exendin-4 against mitochondrial oxidative damage and its relationship with Ca²⁺-independent phospholipase A2.

Methods

We established a pancreatic β-cell oxidative stress damage model using Min6 cell lines cultured in vitro with tert-buty1 hydroperoxide and hydrogen peroxide. We then added Exendin-4 to observe changes in the rate of cell apoptosis (Annexin-V-FITC-PI staining flow cytometry and DNA ladder). We detected the activity of the caspase 3 and 8 apoptotic factors, measured the mitochondrial membrane potential losses and reactive oxygen species production levels, and detected the expression of cytochrome c and Smac/DLAMO in the cytosol and mitochondria, mitochondrial Ca₂-independent phospholipase A2 and Ca²⁺-independent phospholipase A2 mRNA.

Results

The time-concentration curve showed that different percentages of apoptosis occurred at different time-concentrations in tert-buty1 hydroperoxide- and hydrogen peroxide-induced Min6 cells. Incubation with 100 µmol/l of Exendin-4 for 48 hours reduced the Min6 cell apoptosis rate (p<0.05). The mitochondrial membrane potential loss and total reactive oxygen species levels decreased (p<0.05), and the release of cytochrome c and Smac/DLAMO from the mitochondria was reduced. The study also showed that Ca²⁺-independent phospholipase A2 activity was positively related to Exendin-4 activity.

Conclusion

Exendin-4 reduces Min6 cell oxidative damage and the cell apoptosis rate, which may be related to Ca²-independent phospholipase A2.     

Exendin-4, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, inhibits cell apoptosis induced by lipotoxicity in pancreatic β-cell line

Lipotoxicity plays an important role in the underlying mechanism of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Prolonged exposure of pancreatic β-cells to elevated concentrations of fatty acid is associated with β-cell apoptosis. Recently, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists have been reported to have direct beneficial effects on β-cells, such as anti-apoptotic effects, increased β-cell mass, and improvement of β-cell function. The mechanism of GLP-1 receptor agonists' protection of pancreatic β-cells against lipotoxicity is not completely understood. We investigated whether the GLP-1 receptor agonist exendin-4 promoted cell survival and attenuated palmitate-induced apoptosis in murine pancreatic β-cells (MIN6). Exposure of MIN6 cells to palmitate (0.4mM) for 24h caused a significant increase in cell apoptosis, which was inhibited by exendin-4. Exposure of MIN6 cells to exendin-4 caused rapid activation of protein kinase B (PKB) under lipotoxic conditions. Furthermore, LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor, abolished the anti-lipotoxic effect of exendin-4 on MIN6 cells. Exendin-4 also inhibited the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis and down-regulated Bax in MIN6 cells. Exendin-4 enhanced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in the presence of palmitate. Our findings suggest that exendin-4 may prevent lipotoxicity-induced apoptosis in MIN6 cells through activation of PKB and inhibition of the mitochondrial pathway.     

Exendin-4 Reduces Ischemic Brain Injury in Normal and Aged Type 2 Diabetic Mice and Promotes Microglial M2 Polarization

Exendin-4 is a glucagon-like receptor 1 agonist clinically used against type 2 diabetes that has also shown neuroprotective effects in experimental stroke models. However, while the neuroprotective efficacy of Exendin-4 has been thoroughly investigated if the pharmacological treatment starts before stroke, the therapeutic potential of the Exendin-4 if the treatment starts acutely after stroke has not been clearly determined. Further, a comparison of the neuroprotective efficacy in normal and aged diabetic mice has not been performed. Finally, the cellular mechanisms behind the efficacy of Exendin-4 have been only partially studied. The main objective of this study was to determine the neuroprotective efficacy of Exendin-4 in normal and aged type 2 diabetic mice if the treatment started after stroke in a clinically relevant setting. Furthermore we characterized the Exendin-4 effects on stroke-induced neuroinflammation. Two-month-old healthy and 14-month-old type 2 diabetic/obese mice were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion. 5 or 50 µg/kg Exendin-4 was administered intraperitoneally at 1.5, 3 or 4.5 hours thereafter. The treatment was continued (0.2 µg/kg/day) for 1 week. The neuroprotective efficacy was assessed by stroke volume measurement and stereological counting of NeuN-positive neurons. Neuroinflammation was determined by gene expression analysis of M1/M2 microglia subtypes and pro-inflammatory cytokines. We show neuroprotective efficacy of 50 µg/kg Exendin-4 at 1.5 and 3 hours after stroke in both young healthy and aged diabetic/obese mice. The 5 µg/kg dose was neuroprotective at 1.5 hour only. Proinflammatory markers and M1 phenotype were not impacted by Exendin-4 treatment while M2 markers were significantly up regulated. Our results support the use of Exendin-4 to reduce stroke-damage in the prehospital/early hospitalization setting irrespectively of age/diabetes. The results indicate the polarization of microglia/macrophages towards the M2 reparative phenotype as a potential mechanism of neuroprotection.     

Exendin-4 upregulates the expression of Wnt-4, a novel regulator of pancreatic β-cell proliferation

The Wnt-signaling pathway regulates β-cell functions. It is not known how the expression of endogenous Wnt-signaling molecules is regulated in β-cells. Therefore, we investigated the effect of antidiabetic drugs and glucose on the expression of Wnt-signaling molecules in β-cells. Primary islets were isolated and cultured. The expression of Wnt-signaling molecules (Wnt-4, Wnt-10b, Frizzled-4, LRP5, TCF7L2) and TNFα was analyzed by semiquantitative PCR and Western blotting. Transient transfections were carried out and proliferation assays of INS-1 β-cells performed using [(3)H]thymidine uptake and BrdU ELISA. Insulin secretion was quantified. A knockdown (siRNA) of Wnt-4 in β-cells was carried out. Exendin-4 significantly increased the expression of Wnt-4 in β-cells on the mRNA level (2.8-fold) and the protein level (3-fold) (P < 0.001). The effect was dose dependent, with strongest stimulation at 10 nM, and it was maintained after long-term stimulation over 4 wk. Addition of exd-(9-39), a GLP-1 receptor antagonist, abolished the effect of exendin-4. Treatment with glucose, insulin, or other antidiabetic drugs had no effect on the expression of any of the examined Wnt-signaling molecules. Functionally, Wnt-4 antagonized the activation of canonical Wnt-signaling in β-cells. Wnt-4 had no effect on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion or insulin gene expression. Knocking down Wnt-4 decreased β-cell proliferation to 45% of controls (P < 0.05). In addition, Wnt-4 and exendin-4 treatment decreased the expression of TNFaα mRNA in primary β-cells. These data demonstrate that stimulation with exendin-4 increases the expression of Wnt-4 in β-cells. Wnt-4 modulates canonical Wnt signaling and acts as regulator of β-cell proliferation and inflammatory cytokine release. This suggests a novel mechanism through which GLP-1 can regulate β-cell proliferation.     

Pregnancy rate after the transfer of sheep embryos originated from randomly chosen oocytes matured and fertilized in vitro

Randomly chosen sheep oocytes isolated from 2- to 5-mm follicles of hormonally nonstimulated slaughtered females were matured and fertilized in vitro. Using heparin for the induction of ram sperm capacitation, a fertilization rate close to 80% was recorded. After the transfer of 29 embryos cultured to the 2- to 4-cell stage to 4 recipients, each delivered 1 lamb. In another experiment, 34 2-cell embryos stage were transferred (1 to each oviduct) to 17 synchronized recipients; 8 pregnancies were established and each of 5 recipients delivered a single lamb. The remaining 3 recipients aborted at the third month of gestation. These results show that sheep embryos can be produced in vitro from randomly chosen oocytes and by using relatively simple procedures. However, the viability of the embryos was low, with approximately only 15% developing to term after transfer at the 2-cell stage.     

Exendin-4 Ameliorates Traumatic Brain Injury-Induced Cognitive Impairment in Rats

Traumatic brain injury represents a major public health issue that affects 1.7 million Americans each year and is a primary contributing factor (30.5%) of all injury-related deaths in the United States. The occurrence of traumatic brain injury is likely underestimated and thus has been termed “a silent epidemic”. Exendin-4 is a long-acting glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus that not only effectively induces glucose-dependent insulin secretion to regulate blood glucose levels but also reduces apoptotic cell death of pancreatic β-cells. Accumulating evidence also supports a neurotrophic and neuroprotective role of glucagon-like peptide-1 in an array of cellular and animal neurodegeneration models. In this study, we evaluated the neuroprotective effects of Exendin-4 using a glutamate toxicity model in vitro and fluid percussion injury in vivo. We found neuroprotective effects of Exendin-4 both in vitro, using markers of cell death, and in vivo, using markers of cognitive function, as assessed by Morris Water Maze. In combination with the reported benefits of ex-4 in other TBI models, these data support repositioning of Exendin-4 as a potential treatment for traumatic brain injury.