Zooplankton structure in the Loosdrecht lakes in relation to trophic status and recent restoration measures

A five-year zooplankton study (1982–86) on three shallow and highly eutrophic lakes in the Loosdrecht area (The Netherlands) did not reveal any significant changes following the considerable reduction in external P-loading (from about 1.0 g to 0.3 g P m^–2 year^–1) since mid-1984.The recent annual fluctuations in the rotifer and crustacean densities are within the range of those found before the restoration measure became operative. A decrease in the average size of the crustaceans and an absence of large-bodied forms reflects an increased fish predation rather than a change in the quality or quantity of their sestonic food ( < 150 µm) which continues to be dominated by filamentous cyanobacteria and Prochlorothrix hollandica, a prochlorophyte discovered in these lakes recently.     

An assessment of the importance of emergent and floating-leaved macrophytes to trophic status in the Loosdrecht lakes (The Netherlands)

The potential importance of the six major emergent and floating-leaved macrophyte species in recycling of sediment phosphorus in the Loosdrecht lakes was studied. Representative plant samples were collected at the time of maximum biomass, and analysed for biomass and carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus contents. Species cover was determined by aerial photography.Total cover in the seven lakes studied ranged between 2 and 26 percent. For the four main species, biomass per unit area increased with lake trophic status. Consistent differences in C, N and P contents per unit biomass were not observed. Although cover values were small, significant amounts of C, N and P were contained in the macrophytes when compared with maximum sestonic content.Potential P loads from macrophyte decay were calculated. In Lake Loosdrecht, the P load represented 15 percent of current external P inputs. The potential importance of macrophyte decay to P recycling in the other lakes is greater.Decay of macrophyte species at the end of the growing season appears to affect autumnal nutrient and chlorophyll a levels in the water column of some lakes. The re-establishment of submerged species following lake restoration may increase the importance of this pathway in the lakes.     

Percentage of rotifers in spring zooplankton in lakes of different trophy

Studies carried out on 8 lakes in the czna-Wodawa Lakeland of eastern Poland indicated that the qualitative and quantitative structure of zooplankton was clearly correlated with the lake trophy state. In the spring zooplankton of lakes affected by gradual natural eutrophication were dominated by rotifers. In the zooplankton of lakes strongly affected by human activities, Cladocera dominated. With an increase in lake trophy there was an increase in the number of species that were indicators of eutrophy and a decrease in the number of indicators of mesotrophy. The total number of species in individual lakes tended to increase with an increase in trophy.     

Phosphorus dynamics following restoration measures in the Loosdrecht Lakes (The Netherlands)

External phosphorus loads to three shallow lakes in the Netherlands were reduced by eliminating waste-water discharge and by dephosphorization of the supply water, with which water level is controlled. Concentrations of total-phosphorus and chlorophyll a were significantly reduced during 1980–1986 in L. Breukeleveen, but not in L. Vuntus and L. Loosdrecht. In 1983–1986 the phosphorus flow through several trophic levels was determined. Changes over these years were not significant. External input to the lakes still contributes substantially to the phosphorus input. Release from the sediments also contributed to the cycling of the phosphorus. Excretion by large crustacean zooplankters was important in phosphorus recycling, and delivered 20–30% of the daily phytoplankton phosphorus demand. A similar contribution is expected from fish. If one wants recovery of the lakes to be accelerated, additional measures are needed.     

The Reeuwijk lakes: A five years water quality study in an eutrophic ecosystem

The Reeuwijk Lakes (The Netherlands) present a typical example of eutrophication in the lower Rhine catchment area. In 1986 restoration of these lakes started by reducing the external P-loading. Two lakes, Lake Elfhoeven and Lake Nieuwenbroek, differing in P-load and residence time were selected for monitoring water quality parameters before (1983–1985) and after (1986–1987) these restoration measures. Reduction of the external P-loading did not result in lower P-concentrations in both lakes. In contrast, P and N increased. This may have been caused by an increase in diffuse discharges. However, seasonal cycles of P and N point to a strong internal loading of nutrients. The concentrations of chlorophyll a and carotene decreased, indicating a lower phytoplankton biomass. However, as C-phycocyanine concentrations increased the relative abundance of cyanobacteria became higher. Seston concentrations and zooplankton densities did not change. Transparency in the lakes slightly decreased after P-reduction and is far too low for the development of any vegetation of submerged waterplants. The typical differences between both lakes remained after restoration measures. The inverse relationship between the concentrations of chlorophyll a and total phosphorus at the two sampled stations remained constant. The differences in phytoplankton composition and the zooplankton biomass give a plausible explanation for this inverse relationship, between the two stations. Restoring the lakes after four decades of P-loading can presumably, not simply be done by lowering the external P-load alone. Supplementary in-lake measures may accelerate the restoration process.     

The eutrophic Loosdrecht Lakes: Current ecological research and restoration perspectives

Features of the Loodsrecht Lakes, with emphasis on the main lake, are discussed with reference to restoration.Characteristics of the present situation are: (1) very low water transparency-Secchi-disc readings around 0.3 m occur in all seasons; (2) relatively small seasonal changes in sestonic matter; (3) important input of resuspended particles into the seston; (4) predominance of filamentous blue-green algae for most of the year; (5) relative scarcity of crustacean zooplankton, while rotifers are abundant; (6) poor development of littoral communities, and absence of benthic producers. The blue-green algae maintain high population density at very low growth rates: rates of loss are low. The zooplankton grazing rate is low due to inefficient filtering, but predation of larger crustaceans by fish may also be important. Studies on epipelon indicated that loss by deposition may be largely compensated by resuspension.Starting in 1984, the external phosphorus loading was markedly reduced. Results for 1984 and 1985 indicate that complementary measures are needed in order to improve water quality. Action should be directed towards increasing the phytoplankton turnover rates. Accelerated specific growth rate can be expected to accompany lower biomass, more successful competition by other algal groups, and enhancement of grazing pressure.Considering the shallowness of the system, promotion of littoral development and return of submerged vegetation may be important in establishing a new equilibrium of the system.     

Ecological effects of reduced nutrient loading (oligotrophication) on lakes: an introduction

1. The variable ecological response of lakes to reduced nutrient loading (oligotrophication) at sites in Europe and North America was discussed at a workshop held in Silkeborg (Denmark) in January 2003. Studies of lake oligotrophication were presented based on both long‐term monitoring and data generated by palaeolimnological methods. 2. This introduction to the special issue provides short summaries of a series of the papers presented and their limnological context. Results show that the majority of lakes had approached a new equilibrium of phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) concentrations 10–15 years (P) and 0–5 years (N) after a major reduction in loading, irrespective of hydraulic retention time. Phytoplankton biomass decreased and a shift towards meso‐oligotrophic species dominance occurred. The fish responded surprisingly fast to the loading reduction in most lakes. As a result, the percentage of piscivores increased and total fish biomass declined markedly, which may explain an increase in the body size of cladocerans and an increase in the zooplankton to phytoplankton biomass ratio seen in many of the lakes. 3. Monitoring has in general been initiated after the effects of eutrophication became apparent. In this context palaeolimnological techniques become very useful because they allow limnologists to extend time scales of coverage and to define restoration targets and baseline conditions. Moreover, lake sediments pre‐dating anthropogenic disturbance can be used to examine ecological response to, for instance, climate variability, allowing problems associated with multiple stressors to be addressed. 4. It is concluded that there is a great need for a synthetic, holistic approach to studying lake oligotrophication, combining multiple techniques of palaeolimnological sediment analysis with detailed but temporally limited long‐term monitoring of chemical and biological variables. This is important, not least to assess future responses to nutrient loading reductions, as global warming will interact with a range of external stressors and ultimately affect lake management strategies to deal with the resultant feedbacks.     

Effects of planktivorous and benthivorous fish on organisms and water chemistry in eutrophic lakes

The effects of planktivorous and benthivorous fish on benthic fauna, zooplankton, phytoplankton and water chemistry were studied experimentally in two eutrophic Swedish lakes using cylindrical enclosures. In enclosures in both lakes, dense fish populations resulted in low numbers of benthic fauna and planktonic cladocerans, high concentration of chlorophyll, blooms of blue-green, algae, high pH and low transparency. In the soft-water Lake Trummen, total phosporus increased in the enclosure with fish, but in the hard-water Lake Bysjön total phosphorus decreased simultaneously with precipitation of calcium carbonate. Enclosures without fish had a higher abundance of benthic fauna and large planktonic cladocerans, lower phytoplankton biomass, lower pH and higher transparency.The changes in enclosures with fish can be described as eutrophication, and those in enclosures without fish as oligotrophication. The possibility of regulation of fish populations as a lake restoration method is discussed.This paper was presented at the XXth SIL Congress in Copenhagen in 1977.     

The significance of the Loosdrecht lakes research project for eutrophication policy in The Netherlands

The Project on the Water Quality Research in the Loosdrecht Lakes (WQL) has come up to the expectations of the Netherlands Environment Ministry. The results reaffirm the main lines of national eutrophication policy drawn up in 1979 (Policy Document on Phosphates) and further developed in the eighties. Interesting new insights have been gained, for example into the role of sediment and seston as well as into the relative importance of trophic levels. It is not possible, however, to definitely establish the effect of WQL on eutrophication policy.The Loosdrecht project is an example of genuine ecological research, incorporating several disciplines, placing the object of research into its surroundings, emphasising the relation nature-culture and committing itself to certain value judgements and policy choices. As a consequence, there is a striking resemblance between the evolution of the project itself and that of ecosystems.All in all the Loosdrecht project should be regarded as a paradigm for future ecosystem studies.