Cover thresholds for impacts of an exotic grass on the structure and assembly of a wet prairie community

Potential impacts of an exotic grass, Hemarthria altissima, on restoration of wet prairie community structure (species richness and cover of indicator species) and assembly processes (temporal turnover rates of plant species) on the Kissimmee River floodplain in Central Florida, USA, were evaluated over a 12-year period before and after restoration of hydrologic regimes (2001), and implementation of herbicide treatments (2006–2007) to control its spread. Thresholds for impacts were derived from comparisons of sample sites with variable levels of H. altissima cover. Prior to herbicide treatments, cover of H. altissima exhibited a logistic increase over time, with peak colonization and expansion occurring during major flood events. Mean post-restoration cover of three native wet prairie indicator species (Polygonum punctatum, Panicum hemitomon, and Luziola fluitans) increased to 37.8 ± 3.4 % in plots in which H. altissima cover was <12 %, and did not exceed 15 % in any plots with H. altissima cover >30 %. Prior to and after herbicide treatments, these indicator species largely accounted for observed differences in wet prairie community structure (i.e., cover of wetland forbs and grasses) between heavily infested sites and plots with low or no cover of H. altissima. The cover threshold at which H. altissima began to have these community-level effects was 40–50 %, but lower species richness was found only where H. altissima cover was >80 %. Increasing cover of H. altissima led to a significant decline in temporal turnover rates of plant species (P < 0.001, r² = 0.10), but also was largely due to plots with very high (>75 %) cover of H. altissima. Mean temporal turnover rates of plant species increased significantly (P = 0.03) after herbicide treatments and subsequently were highest during an ensuing flood pulse. However, 2–3 years after herbicide treatments, regrowth of H. altissima reestablished high cover (mean = 59 ± 9.5 %) in over half of the treated plots. The ability of H. altissima to establish dominant cover in restored hydrologic conditions on the Kissimmee River floodplain, and documented regrowth following herbicide treatments, increase the potential for this exotic grass species to be a pervasive threat to successful reestablishment of wet prairie community structure and assembly processes.     

Response of floodplain understorey species to environmental gradients and tree invasion: a functional trait perspective

Plants are connected to habitats by functional traits which are filtered by environmental gradients. Since tree species composition in the forest canopy can influence ecosystem processes by changing resource availability, litter accumulation, and soil nutrient content, we hypothesised that non-native invasive trees can establish new environmental filters on the understorey communities. In the hardwood floodplain forests in Northern Italy, the invasive trees Robinia pseudoacacia L. and Prunus serotina Ehrh. are the dominant canopy species. We used trait data assembled from databases and iterative RLQ analysis to identify a parsimonious set of functional traits responding to environmental variables (soil, light availability, disturbance, and stand structure) and the dominant native and invasive canopy species. Then, RLQ and fourth-corner analysis was conducted to investigate the joint structure between macro-environmental variables and species traits and functional groups were identified. The trait composition of the herb-layer was significantly related to the main environmental gradients and the presence of the invaders in the canopy showed significant relationships with several traits. In particular, the presence of P. serotina may mitigate or even erase the effect of disturbances, maintaining a stable forest microclimate and thus favouring ‘true’ forest species, while R. pseudoacacia may slow down forest succession and regeneration by establishing new stable associations with a graminoid-dominated understorey. The impact of the two invasive trees on herb layer composition appears to differ, indicating that different management and control strategies may be needed.     

Interaction between invasive and potentially invasive shrub species does not influence relationships between their ecological success and distance from propagule sources

Although interactions between alien and native plant species are well studied, data on interactions between two co-existing alien species with respect to their invasibility are scarce. The aims of this study were (1) to evaluate three factors shaping abundance of the alien shrub species Cornus alternifolia: abundance of another alien (invasive) shrub species (Prunus serotina), type of tree stand (coniferous vs. broadleaved) and distance to propagule sources and (2) to assess the potential dispersal distance of the species studied. Densities of both species were assessed within 194 experimental plots (located in experimental plantations of trees) in Rogów Arboretum (Central Poland). P. serotina occurred on 79 and C. alternifolia on 33 of the 194 plots. The furthest distance of C. alternifolia from the propagule source was 338 m. C. alternifolia reached higher densities in coniferous than broadleaved tree stands. Density of C. alternifolia depended on tree stand type and distance from the propagule source, but did not depend on density of P. serotina. Density of C. alternifolia decreased with increasing distance from the propagule source; however, this relationship was modified by the type of tree stand: densities were lower in broadleaved than in coniferous stands. The presence of the invasive species seems to neither facilitate nor limit the dispersal distance of C. alternifolia, as these two species differ in shade tolerance. The study also provided the first information about C. alternifolia potential invasiveness, because earlier this species was noticed only as casually escaping from cultivation in Slovakia.     

Interactions between seedlings of the invasive tree Ailanthus altissima and the native tree Robinia pseudoacacia under low nutrient conditions

The allelopathic effect of A. altissima and the nitrogen fixing ability of R. pseudoacacia make the interaction between these two species important to community dynamics. A replacement series greenhouse experiment was used to investigate the type of interaction between seedlings of A. altissima and R. pseudoacacia at high and low soil nutrition states. Also, seeds of A. altissima from its native (China) and invasive ranges (USA) were used to compare the effect of the different seed sources on the interaction with R. pseudoacacia. Robinia pseudoacacia was the better competitor. The presence of A. altissima significantly inhibited nodulation of R. pseudoacacia roots. In summary, in low nutrient early succession sites, seedlings of R. pseudoacacia and A. altissima will coexist and R. pseudoacacia will be the better competitor. However, A. altissima can increase its competitive ability by inhibiting nitrogen fixation by R. pseudoacacia. Differences between the competitive ability of the Chinese and US seed lots of A. altissima did not support the rapid evolution theory for invasive species success.     

Tree species composition and diversity gradients in white-water forests across the Amazon Basin

Aim Attention has increasingly been focused on the floristic variation within forests of the Amazon Basin. Variations in species composition and diversity are poorly understood, especially in Amazonian floodplain forests. We investigated tree species composition, richness and α diversity in the Amazonian white‐water (várzea) forest, looking particularly at: (1) the flood‐level gradient, (2) the successional stage (stand age), and (3) the geographical location of the forests. Location Eastern Amazonia, central Amazonia, equatorial western Amazonia and the southern part of western Amazonia. Methods The data originate from 16 permanent várzea forest plots in the central and western Brazilian Amazon and in the northern Bolivian Amazon. In addition, revised species lists of 28 várzea forest inventories from across the Amazon Basin were used. Most important families and species were determined using importance values. Floristic similarity between plots was calculated to detect similarity variations between forest types and over geographical distances. To check for spatial diversity gradients, α diversity (Fisher) of the plots was correlated with stand age, longitudinal and latitudinal plot location, and flood‐level gradient. Results More than 900 flood‐tolerant tree species were recorded, which indicates that Amazonian várzea forests are the most species‐rich floodplain forests worldwide. The most important plant families recorded also dominate most Neotropical upland forests, and c. 31% of the tree species listed also occur in the uplands. Species distribution and diversity varied: (1) on the flood‐level gradient, with a distinct separation between low‐várzea forests and high‐várzea forests, (2) in relation to natural forest succession, with species‐poor forests in early stages of succession and species‐rich forests in later stages, and (3) as a function of geographical distance between sites, indicating an increasing α diversity from eastern to western Amazonia, and simultaneously from the southern part of western Amazonia to equatorial western Amazonia. Main conclusions The east‐to‐west gradient of increasing species diversity in várzea forests reflects the diversity patterns also described for Amazonian terra firme. Despite the fine‐scale geomorphological heterogeneity of the floodplains, and despite high disturbance of the different forest types by sedimentation and erosion, várzea forests are dominated by a high proportion of generalistic, widely distributed tree species. In contrast to high‐várzea forests, where floristic dissimilarity increases significantly with increasing distance between the sites, low‐várzea forests can exhibit high floristic similarity over large geographical distances. The high várzea may be an important transitional zone for lateral immigration of terra firme species to the floodplains, thus contributing to comparatively high species richness. However, long‐distance dispersal of many low‐várzea trees contributes to comparatively low species richness in highly flooded low várzea.     

A multi-scale approach to identify invasion drivers and invaders’ future dynamics

Climate, land use and disturbances are well known drivers of invasion. However, their relative influence may change across spatial scales, where climate is expected to be the main filter at broad scales; land use is expected to have more influence at intermediate scales, and disturbance, at fine ones. Understanding the underlying processes that drive invasion patterns at different spatial scales is thus crucial to be able to anticipate the future spread of invaders. Here, we quantified the relative importance of climate, land use, and disturbance on the distribution of the invasive trees Ailanthus altissima and Robinia pseudoacacia, across three nested spatial scales, namely global, country (Spain) and riverbank (three riparian riverbanks). To do so, for each species and scale, we built ensemble species distribution models. We also identified their range filling and inferred the most suitable areas in Spain for them to spread. In general, our study confirms that climate acts as an initial coarse filter of species distribution, whilst both climate and land use were important at the country scale; at the riverbank scale human-mediated disturbances gained importance. However, R. pseudoacacia and A. altissima showed differences in their degree of range filling, where A. altissima has a higher potential for range expansion in the near future. Overall, the integration of different scales into invasion studies shows a great potential to enrich our understanding of species-habitat relationships, and to help anticipate their future dynamics.     

Deer Browsing,Forest Edge Effects,and Vegetation Dynamics Following Bottomland Forest Restoration

Vegetation composition and forest stand development are frequently mediated by browsing herbivores. These relationships have received little attention in a forest restoration context even though White‐tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is likely to influence these agriculture, forest, and restored ecosystem mosaic landscapes. Tree species composition, herbaceous vegetation, and deer browsing patterns were assessed 5 and 7 years following bottomland hardwood forest restoration on a 526‐ha site in the Cache River watershed in southern Illinois, United States. Light‐seeded tree species (Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Acer negundo, Liquidambar styraciflua, and Platanus occidentalis) of volunteer origin dominated the woody vegetation component, with especially high stocking and density near existing forest cover and potential seed sources. At more distant locations, presumably planted Quercus spp. were more likely to dominate and were the only tree species found in 15% of plots in year 7. Quercus stocking increased over the course of the study, constituting 7% of trees during year 7. Deer herbivory was associated with reduced stem height and disproportionately impacted seedlings of Quercus palustris and Celtis spp. Our results suggest that deer browsing influences forest stand composition and density as a function of distance from the nearest forest edge. Herbaceous vegetation had little impact on early stand development. Continued spread of the exotic and invasive Lonicera japonica and potential mortality of F. pennsylvanica due to an anticipated Emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) epidemic, combined with low stand density and delayed canopy closure, may result in persistent overstory gaps and compromise long‐term restoration success.     

Analysis of interactions between the invasive tree-of-heaven (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ailanthus altissima</Emphasis>) and the native black locust (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Robinia pseudoacacia</Emphasis>)

Invasive exotic plants can persist and successfully spread within ecosystems and negatively affect the recruitment of native species. The exotic invasive Ailanthus altissima and the native Robinia pseudoacacia are frequently found in disturbed sites and exhibit similar growth and reproductive characteristics, yet each has distinct functional roles such as allelopathy and nitrogen fixation, respectively. A four-month full additive series in the greenhouse was used to analyze the intraspecific and interspecific interference between these two species. In the greenhouse experiment, the inverse of the mean total biomass (g) response per plant for each species was regressed on the density of each species and revealed that the performance of the plants was significantly reduced by interspecific interference and not by intraspecific interference (p < 0.05). Other biomass traits such as root dry weight, shoot dry weight, stem dry weight, and leaf dry weight were also negatively affected by interspecific interference. Competition indices such as Relative Yield Total and Relative Crowding Coefficient suggested that A. altissima was the better competitor in mixed plantings. Ailanthus altissima consistently produced a larger above ground and below ground relative yield while R. pseudoacacia generated a larger aboveground relative yield in high density mixed species pots.     

黄河三角洲刺槐臭椿混交林与纯林土壤细菌群落结构和多样性特征分析

为研究黄河三角洲地区混交人工林土壤细菌群落特征,应用高通量测序技术,比较分析了刺槐臭椿混交林以及臭椿和刺槐纯林土壤细菌结构及多样性,并结合土壤理化性质进行分析。试验结果表明：在细菌门分类水平上,臭椿纯林、刺槐纯林、刺槐臭椿混交林土壤中分别检测出27、25、31门细菌,3种不同林分土壤中酸杆菌门、变形菌门、放线菌门、硝化螺旋菌门、绿弯菌门、浮霉菌门、芽单胞菌门、疣微菌门8种细菌是土壤中的主要细菌群落,其中酸杆菌门、变形菌门和放线菌门为优势细菌群落。不同类型人工林土壤中各门细菌相对丰度差异显著。混交林土壤细菌物种数和Shannon指数值分别为1910和9.1高于两种纯林。通过对土壤主要细菌群落与土壤理化性质进行主成分分析发现,3种不同林分之间在土壤细菌群落结构上有较高程度的分离,差异显著（P < 0.05）,有效磷含量与混交林土壤细菌群落有较强的正相关关系。因此可以得出结论,不同林分类型、土壤理化性质和细菌群落结构三者相互影响,刺槐臭椿混交增加了土壤细菌群落多样性,土壤理化性质在一定程度上影响土壤细菌结构和多样性。     

Competition and soil fungi affect the physiological and growth traits of an alien and a native tree species

Competition plays an important role in the replacement of native species by alien plants. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to investigate whether the competition pattern of alien Robinia pseudoacacia L. and native Quercus acutissima Carr. is affected by soil sterilization. Physiological traits, such as gas-exchange parameters and chlorophyll (Chl) content, and growth traits, such as the biomass accumulation of the two species, were examined in natural soil or in soil sterilized with benomyl. The results show that native Q. acutissima inhibits the growth of R. pseudoacacia in natural soil. When the two plants coexisted and competed under sterilization treatment, R. pseudoacacia was less inhibited by Q. acutissima and the competition of R. pseudoacacia decreased the growth of Q. acutissima in terms of biomass, Chl a, Chl b, total Chl, and Chl a/b. These results suggest that soil sterilization benefits the growth of R. pseudoacacia and changes the competition pattern by the changed soil biota. Soil sterilization increased the biomass of root nodules, which ultimately benefits the growth of R. pseudoacacia and root nodule bacteria may be important in the dispersal and invasion process of nitrogen-fixing alien plants such as R. pseudoacacia.     

Per capita community-level effects of an invasive grass, Microstegium vimineum, on vegetation in mesic forests in northern Mississippi (USA)

Quantifying per capita impacts of invasive species on resident communities requires integrating regression analyses with experiments under natural conditions. Using multivariate and univariate approaches, I regressed the abundance of 105 resident species of groundcover plants and tree seedlings against the abundance and height of an invasive grass, Microstegium vimineum, within 117 plots in four mesic floodplain forests in Mississippi (USA). Microstegium vimineum was most productive (i.e., tallest and most abundant) in canopy gaps in floodplains, and a significant amount of variation in resident species composition was directly explained by canopy gaps and stand age. The relatively small (but statistically significant) percentage of variation in resident species composition (1.8%) explained by M. vimineum in the multivariate analysis was attributable to significant relationships with a few common species. Most of these were negative relationships with shady mesic forest indicators. Most positive relationships were with infrequent disturbance indicators and with species with growth phenologies that differed from that of M. vimineum. Results of field competition experiments with the three most common species to show significant relationships with M. vimineum revealed asymmetric competitive effects of M. vimineum on Chasmanthium laxum and positive responses of Quercus alba seedlings and Leersia virginica adults to the removal of M. vimineum in one growing season. Results of this study suggest that negative per capita community-level effects of M. vimineum are likely to be greater in shady forests than in open floodplain forests due to the relative paucity of vulnerable species in the latter.     

Facilitations between the Introduced Nitrogen-fixing Tree, Robinia pseudoacacia, and Nonnative Plant Species in the Glacial Outwash Upland Ecosystem of Cape Cod, MA

Robinia pseudoacacia, a nitrogen-fixing, clonal tree species native to the central Appalachian and Ozark Mountains, is considered to be one of the top 100 worldwide woody plant invaders. We initiated this project to determine the impact of black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) on an upland coastal ecosystem and to estimate the spread of this species within Cape Cod National Seashore (CCNS). We censused 20 × 20 m plots for vegetation cover and environmental characteristics in the center of twenty randomly-selected Robinia pseudoacacia stands. Additionally, paired plots were surveyed under native overstory stands, comprised largely of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) and mixed pitch pine–oak (Quercus velutina and Quercus alba) communities. These native stands were located 20 m from the edge of the sampled locust stand and had similar land use histories. To determine the historical distribution of black locust in CCNS, we digitized and georeferenced historical and current aerial photographs of randomly-selected stands. Ordination analyses revealed striking community-level differences between locust and pine–oak stands in their immediate vicinity. Understory nonnative species richness and abundance values were significantly higher under Robinia stands than under the paired native stands. Additionally, animal-dispersed plant species tended to occur in closer stands, suggesting their spread between locust stands. Robinia stand area significantly decreased from the 1970’s to 2002, prompting us to recommend no management action of black locust and a monitoring program and possible removal of associated animal-dispersed species. The introduction of a novel functional type (nitrogen-fixing tree) into this xeric, nutrient-poor, upland forested ecosystem resulted in ‘islands of invasion’ within this resistant system.     

Does the invasive species Ailanthus altissima threaten floristic diversity of temperate peri-urban forests?

We examined the influence of the invasive species Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle on the understory of the Fontainebleau forest, a peri-urban forest of Paris (France), by comparing invaded versus control plots. We performed floristic inventories in fixed plots around the base of A. altissima vs native trees in different habitat types of the forest. Our findings suggest that the understory vegetation is significantly poorer and more common under A. altissima than under the other tree species and that the floristic composition is significantly different. Furthermore, the number of A. altissima root suckers growing in the plots was significantly negatively correlated with floristic richness. This effect can be attributed to both interspecific competition and allelopathic properties of A. altissima. These results give an estimate of the threat to biodiversity ascribed to A. altissima in the Fontainebleau forest.     

Traits explain invasion of alien plants into tropical rainforests

• 1. The establishment of new botanic gardens in tropical regions highlights a need for weed risk assessment tools suitable for tropical ecosystems. The relevance of plant traits for invasion into tropical rainforests has not been well studied.
• 2. Working in and around four botanic gardens in Indonesia where 590 alien species have been planted, we estimated the effect of four plant traits, plus time since species introduction, on: (a) the naturalization probability and (b) abundance (density) of naturalized species in adjacent native tropical rainforests; and (c) the distance that naturalized alien plants have spread from the botanic gardens.
• 3. We found that specific leaf area (SLA) strongly differentiated 23 naturalized from 78 non‐naturalized alien species (randomly selected from 577 non‐naturalized species) in our study. These trends may indicate that aliens with high SLA, which had a higher probability of naturalization, benefit from at least two factors when establishing in tropical forests: high growth rates and occupation of forest gaps. Naturalized aliens had high SLA and tended to be short. However, plant height was not significantly related to species'' naturalization probability when considered alongside other traits.
• 4. Alien species that were present in the gardens for over 30 years and those with small seeds also had higher probabilities of becoming naturalized, indicating that garden plants can invade the understorey of closed canopy tropical rainforests, especially when invading species are shade tolerant and have sufficient time to establish.
• 5. On average, alien species that were not animal dispersed spread 78 m further into the forests and were more likely to naturalize than animal‐dispersed species. We did not detect relationships between the measured traits and estimated density of naturalized aliens in the adjacent forests.
• 6. Synthesis: Traits were able to differentiate alien species from botanic gardens that naturalized in native forest from those that did not; this is promising for developing trait‐based risk assessment in the tropics. To limit the risk of invasion and spread into adjacent native forests, we suggest tropical botanic gardens avoid planting alien species with fast carbon capture strategies and those that are shade tolerant.

     

Post-fire spread of alien plant species in a mixed broad-leaved forest of the Insubric region

How do tree species regenerate and which ecological conditions are required after forest fire in the Insubric region of the Alps? Are indigenous stand-forming tree species resistant over the invasion of alien plant species after such a disturbance? We addressed these questions in a case study in the Swiss canton of Ticino. In April 2006, a surface fire with severe intensity burnt a forest area of 55 ha on a south-facing slope (400-800 m.a.s.l.). The dominant trees in the investigated area were chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.), beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and deciduous oaks (Quercus spp.) mixed with tree species of intermediate height. Vegetation data were collected in May and August 2009 by systematic sampling. Resprouting of the survived trees and generative regeneration were analysed by counting vegetative shoots from sprouting stools, of seedling age, height and damage rate, respectively. Different vegetation structures related to low or high fire intensity were clearly visible three years after the forest fire, creating various habitats for both new invaders and seedlings of the stand-forming trees. The dominant chestnut was the only tree species that regenerated effectively by sprouting from stools. Seedlings of the stand-forming trees grew in high abundance under shadow conditions close to their mother trees which provided the seed source. In contrast, pioneer trees invaded patches where full light was available. Under such conditions the two main woody alien plant species, Ailanthus altissima and Robinia pseudoacacia, grew in high abundance. Due to the different ecological requirements of indigenous and alien tree seedlings, not any interaction between the two groups was detected.     

Growth and physiological responses to successional water deficit and recovery in four warm‐temperate woody species

Plant responses to drought and their subsequent rehydration can provide evidence for forest dynamics within the context of climate change. In this study, the seedlings of two native species (Vitex negundo var. heterophylla, Quercus acutissima) and two exotic species (Robinia pseudoacacia, Amorpha fruticosa) to China were selected in a greenhouse experiment. The gas exchange, stem hydraulic parameters, plant osmoprotectant contents and antioxidant activities of the seedlings that were subjected to sustained drought and rehydration (test group) as well as those of well‐irrigated seedlings (control group) were measured. The two native species exhibited a greater degree of isohydry with drought because they limited the stomatal opening timely from the onset of the drought. However, the two exotic species showed a more ‘water spender’‐like strategy with R. pseudoacacia showing anisohydric responses and A. fruticosa showing isohydrodynamic responses to drought. Severe drought significantly decreased the leaf gas exchange rates and hydraulic properties, whereas the instantaneous water use efficiency and osmoprotectant contents increased markedly. Most of the physiological parameters recovered rapidly after mild drought rehydration, but the water potential and/or supply of nonstructural carbohydrates did not recover after severe drought rehydration. The results demonstrate that the xylem hydraulic conductivity and shoot water potential jointly play a crucial role in the drought recovery of woody plants. In brief, the native species may play a dominant role in the future in warm‐temperate forests because they employ a better balance between carbon gain and water loss than the alien species under extreme drought conditions.     

Ecologie des coléoptères saproxyliques dans les forêts de l’étage montagnard des Alpes du nord françaises

Ecology of the saproxylic beetles in mountain forests of the northern French Alps. Both saproxylic beetles and deadwood stocks were studied in order to detect special deadwood features important for these organisms, and to better understand their ecology. A total of 37 window traps were used in ten stations covering four mountain forests in the French northern Alps. In the same time, the deadwood stocks were inventoried in the ten stations. 181 m³ of deadwood (1219 fragments) were measured and 4268 individuals belonging to 235 saproxylic species were trapped. The deadwood volume ranges from 21.1 to 233.6 m³/ha and the number of beetle species from 27 to 113. A positive relation was observed between the stand age, the whole volume of deadwood and the species richness of saproxylic beetles. However, in some deadwood rich sites the beetle diversity is not as high as expected. This was explained by the negative influence of the management history of the forest. The compositions of saproxylic communities depend also of some characteristics of the deadwood stocks. Xylophagous and zoophagous species prefer “not lying and recently dead softwood” while the mycophagous and saproxylophagous species are strongly dependent on fungi growing on hardwood, respectively under “large surfaces of barks” and in “large woody debris”. Surprisingly, the majority of the saproxylic beetles living on softwood does not depend on the most represented resinous deadwood type: the “decayed and lying softwood”.     

Fine root and aboveground carbon stocks in riparian forests: the roles of diking and environmental gradients

Aims

We analysed current carbon (C) stocks in fine root and aboveground biomass of riparian forests and influential environmental parameters on either side of a dike in the Donau-Auen National Park, Austria.

Methods

On both sides of the dike, carbon (C) stock of fine roots (CFR) under four dominant tree species and of aboveground biomass (CAB) were assessed by topsoil cores (0–30 cm) and angle count sampling method respectively (n?=?48). C stocks were modeled, performing boosted regression trees (BRT).

Results

Overall CFR was 2.8 t ha^?1, with significantly higher C stocks in diked (DRF) compared to flooded riparian forests (FRF). In contrast to CFR, mean CAB was 123 t ha^?1 and lower in DRF compared to FRF. However, dike construction was consistently ruled out as a predictor variable in BRT. CFR was influenced by the distance to the Danube River and the dominant tree species. CAB was mainly influenced by the magnitude of fluctuations in the groundwater table and the distances to the river and the low groundwater table.

Conclusions

Despite pronounced differences in FRF and DRF, we conclude that there is only weak support that dikes directly influence C allocation in floodplain forests within the time scale considered (110 years).     

Girdling of young Robinia pseudoacacia trees on the Tama River terrace,central Japan

Robinia pseudoacacia L. has been widely planted worldwide for a variety of purposes, but it is an aggressive invader in many regions. To control invasion by the species, we examined the effectiveness of girdling young trees to ground level to kill trees and preclude sprout development through comparison among girdling, clearcut and control treatments on the Tama river terrace, Tokyo. More than 99% of R. pseudoacacia trees were killed by girdling. The number of sprouts that developed from roots and stumps after girdling was distinctly reduced compared with that observed after clearcutting. We also conducted girdling of young trees of Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle, which shows similar developmental and ecological characteristics to R. pseudoacacia, and the two species are often sympatric. More than 98% of A. altissima trees were killed, but a higher number of sprouts developed from A. altissima stumps compared with that from R. pseudoacacia stumps. These results indicate that girdling young trees to ground level is an effective method of controlling R. pseudoacacia by killing the stem and precluding sprout development. The girdling method is simple to apply and imposes a low burden on the surrounding environment.