Imaging technics in bronchology

Bronchoscopic imaging and diagnostics are tightly connected with radiological and pathological techniques. While computer tomography (virtual bronchoscopy) makes possible to mimic a realistic endobronchial situation, autofluorescent bronchoscopy holds significant potential to discover precancerous lesions not identifiable by standard bronchoscopy. Endoscopic ultrasound and fluoroscopy can be applied in order to obtain images and tissue samples from the extrabronchial areas. Electromagnetic navigation during flexible bronchoscopy, a novel technology that facilitates approaching peripheral lung lesions, involves creating an electromagnetic field around the thorax and localizing an endoscopic tool using a microsensor overlaid upon previously acquired CT images. In conclusion, parallel use of invasive and non-invasive imaging has the potential for considerable improvements in the diagnostic possibilities of routine bronchoscopic procedures.     

Surfactant proteins SP-B and SP-C and their precursors in bronchoalveolar lavages from children with acute and chronic inflammatory airway disease

Background

The reported diagnostic yield from bronchoscopies in patients with lung cancer varies greatly. The optimal combination of sampling techniques has not been finally established. The objectives of this study were to find the predictors of diagnostic yield in bronchoscopy and to evaluate different combinations of sampling techniques.

Methods

All bronchoscopies performed on suspicion of lung malignancy in 2003 and 2004 were reviewed, and 363 patients with proven malignant lung disease were included in the study. Sampling techniques performed were biopsy, transbronchial needle aspiration (TBNA), brushing, small volume lavage (SVL), and aspiration of fluid from the entire procedure. Logistic regression analyses were adjusted for sex, age, endobronchial visibility, localization (lobe), distance from carina, and tumor size.

Results

The adjusted odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for a positive diagnostic yield through all procedures were 17.0 (8.5–34.0) for endobronchial lesions, and 2.6 (1.3–5.2) for constriction/compression, compared to non-visible lesions; 3.8 (1.3–10.7) for lesions > 4 cm, 6.7 (2.1–21.8) for lesions 3–4 cm, and 2.5 (0.8–7.9) for lesions 2–3 cm compared with lesions <= 2 cm. The combined diagnostic yield of biopsy and TBNA was 83.7% for endobronchial lesions and 54.2% for the combined group without visible lesions. This was superior to either technique alone, whereas additional brushing, SVL, and aspiration did not significantly increase the diagnostic yield.

Conclusion

In patients with malignant lung disease, visible lesions and larger tumor size were significant predictors of higher diagnostic yield, after adjustment for sex, age, distance from carina, side and lobe. The combined diagnostic yield of biopsy and TBNA was significant higher than with either technique alone.     

Lower lobe pulmonary tuberculosis in immunocompetent male

We present a case of 23-year-old student misdiagnosed for two months. Radiological finding showed a pneumonial infiltrate of left lung lower lobe. Antibiotical therapy was not resulting in a radiological regression. Biopsy of the lung infiltrate by transthoracic computed tomography guided histology needle, showed granulomatous inflammation with necrosis. Bronchial aspirate received by bronchoscopy was positive in culture on Mycobacterium tuberculosis. After 6 months of antituberculotic therapy advance the complete regression of lung infiltrate. Tuberculosis of lower lung lobe is difficult to diagnose, particularly in persons who are not immunocompromised or without associated diseases. Lower lobe localization of tuberculosis is between 0.6 to 10.5% in all cases. Early diagnosis and therapy of pulmonary tuberculosis depends on bronchoscopic samples. The biopsy of the lung infiltrate by transthoracic computed tomography guided histology needle in histopathological and bacteriological diagnosis of tuberculosis was also useful.     

Diagnostic Accuracy of CT-Guided Transthoracic Needle Biopsy for Solitary Pulmonary Nodules

To evaluate the diagnostic accuracy of computed tomography (CT)-guided percutaneous lung biopsy for solitary pulmonary nodules. Three hundred and eleven patients (211 males and 100 females), with a mean age of 59.6 years (range, 19–87 years), who were diagnosed with solitary pulmonary nodules and underwent CT-guided percutaneous transthoracic needle biopsy between January 2008 and January 2014 were reviewed. All patients were confirmed by surgery or the clinical course. The overall diagnostic accuracy and incidence of complications were calculated, and the factors influencing these were statistically evaluated and compared. Specimens were successfully obtained from all 311 patients. A total of 217 and 94 cases were found to be malignant and benign lesions, respectively, by biopsy. Two hundred and twenty-five (72.3%) carcinomas, 78 (25.1%) benign lesions, and 8 (2.6%) inconclusive lesions were confirmed by surgery and the clinical course. The diagnostic accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of CT-guided percutaneous transthoracic needle biopsy were 92.9%, 95.3%, and 95.7%, respectively. The incidences of pneumothorax and self-limiting bleeding were 17.7% and 11.6%, respectively. Taking account of all evidence, CT-guided percutaneous lung biopsy for solitary pulmonary nodules is an efficient, and safe diagnostic method associated with few complications.     

The Role of Percutaneous Lung Biopsy in the Workup of a Solitary Pulmonary Nodule

As the technique of percutaneous lung biopsy continues to evolve, it offers an increasingly accurate method of establishing the malignancy or benignity of a solitary pulmonary nodule. There are relatively few contraindications to the procedure, and the complications—primarily pneumothorax and hemoptysis—generally resolve without therapy. Transthoracic needle aspiration has an important role in the workup for a “coin lesion.” Other elements of the diagnostic workup—particularly the history, a chest roentgenogram, computed tomography, sputum cytology, and transbronchial brush biopsy—may either add to or substitute for a transthoracic needle aspiration biopsy. An algorithm can be used to guide the diagnostic approach to a solitary pulmonary nodule.     

Pitfalls in the diagnosis of Wegener''s granulomatosis on fine needle aspiration cytology

OBJECTIVE: To review the clinical and pathological findings in six suspected cases of Wegener's granulomatosis (WG) and highlight the diagnostic difficulties faced by the cytopathologist. METHODS: Retrospective review of records of the Cytopathology Department to identify patients who underwent image-guided transthoracic pulmonary fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) for pulmonary lesions of suspected WG and those who were subsequently confirmed to have WG. Detailed evaluation of cytomorphological features was carried out. RESULTS: A total of six cases were identified in whom the initial procedure to obtain a pathological diagnosis was transthoracic FNAC. In one case, atypical squamous cells on cytology initially suggested a diagnosis of squamous cell carcinoma while in another a diagnosis of WG was made on cytology; however, a subsequent lung biopsy revealed silicosis. CONCLUSION: Acute inflammation and necrosis are the most consistent cytopathological findings in WG. In selected cases FNAC can provide supportive pathological evidence to establish a diagnosis of WG.     

The techniques of endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration

Endobronchial ultrasound-guided transbronchial needle aspiration (EBUS-TBNA) is a minimally invasive modality for mediastinal lymph node staging in lung cancer patients as well as for the diagnosis of mediastinal and hilar adenopathy. The high diagnostic yield of EBUS-TBNA for lymph node staging has been shown in systematic reviews and meta-analysis. It has attracted physicians and surgeons as an alternative modality to surgical biopsy for the assessment of patients with enlarged mediastinal and/or hilar lymph nodes. Cell blocks obtained by EBUS-TBNA can be applicable not only for pathologic diagnosis but also for further investigations such as immunohistochemistry and fluorescence in situ hybridization. In addition, samples obtained by EBUS-TBNA can also be used for molecular analysis. Unlike regular bronchoscopy, EBUS-TBNA uses the convex probe EBUS with an ultrasound probe on the tip of a flexible bronchoscope. It is important for the bronchoscopist to fully understand the mediastinal anatomy and be able to correlate it with the ultrasound images for a successful EBUS-TBNA. The dedicated transbronchial needle used for EBUS-TBNA is somewhat different from an ordinary transbronchial biopsy forceps. Training is mandatory for achieving high diagnostic yield without complications. The learning curve of EBUS-TBNA is different from each physician, and continuous training program will be needed for impartiality. This article explains the detailed techniques of EBUS-TBNA to master this innovative procedure.     

Endobronchial Ultrasound Changed the World of Lung Cancer Patients: A 11-Year Institutional Experience

Objectives

The role of advanced bronchoscopic diagnostic techniques in the detection and staging of lung cancer has increased sharply in recent years. The development of endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) improved minimally invasive mediastinal staging and diagnosis of peripheral lung lesions (PLLs). We investigated the impact of using EBUS as a diagnostic method for tissue acquisition in lung cancer patients.

Methods

In a single center observational retrospective study, 3712 subjects were diagnosed with lung cancer from 2003 to 2013 (EBUS was introduced in 2008). Thus, we divided the data into two periods: the conventional bronchoscopy period (2003 to 2007) and the EBUS period (2008 to 2013).

Results

A total of 3712 patients were included in the analysis. Comparing the conventional bronchoscopy period with the EBUS period data, there has been a significant reduction in the use of diagnostic modalities: CT-guided biopsy (P < 0.0001) and pleural effusion cytology (P < 0.0001). The proportion of subjects diagnosed using bronchoscopy significantly increased from 39.4% in the conventional period to 47.4% in the EBUS period (P < 0.0001). In the EBUS period, there has also been a significant increase in the proportion of patients proceeding directly to diagnostic surgery (P < 0.0001). Compared to bronchoscopy, the incidence of complications was higher in those who underwent CT guide biopsy. The incidence of iatrogenic pneumothorax significantly decreased in the EBUS period.

Conclusions

Advanced bronchoscopic techniques are widely used in the diagnosis of lung cancer. At our institution, the increasing use of EBUS for providing lung cancer diagnosis has led to a significant reduction in other diagnostic modalities, namely CT-guided biopsy and pleural effusion cytology. These changes in practice also led to a reduction in the incidence of complications.     

Bronchoscopic Cryobiopsy for the Diagnosis of Diffuse Parenchymal Lung Disease

Background

Although in some cases clinical and radiographic features may be sufficient to establish a diagnosis of diffuse parenchymal lung disease (DPLD), surgical lung biopsy is frequently required. Recently a new technique for bronchoscopic lung biopsy has been developed using flexible cryo-probes. In this study we describe our clinical experience using bronchoscopic cryobiopsy for diagnosis of diffuse lung disease.

Methods

A retrospective study of subjects who had undergone bronchoscopic cryobiopsy for evaluation of DPLD at an academic tertiary care center from January 1, 2012 through January 15, 2013 was performed. The procedure was performed using a flexible bronchoscope to acquire biopsies of lung parenchyma. H&E stained biopsies were reviewed by an expert lung pathologist.

Results

Twenty-five eligible subjects were identified. With a mean area of 64.2 mm², cryobiopsies were larger than that typically encountered with traditional transbronchial forceps biopsy. In 19 of the 25 subjects, a specific diagnosis was obtained. In one additional subject, biopsies demonstrating normal parenchyma were felt sufficient to exclude diffuse lung disease as a cause of dyspnea. The overall diagnostic yield of bronchoscopic cryobiopsy was 80% (20/25). The most frequent diagnosis was usual interstitial pneumonia (UIP) (n = 7). Three of the 25 subjects ultimately required surgical lung biopsy. There were no significant complications.

Conclusion

In patients with suspected diffuse parenchymal lung disease, bronchoscopic cryobiopsy is a promising and minimally invasive approach to obtain lung tissue with high diagnostic yield.     

Reversibility of complete unperfusion in a patient with recurrent hemoptysis

We present a case of a 68-year-old woman with a history of mild smoking and chronic bronchitis who showed recurrent hemoptysis. She presented with a nearly normal chest roentgenogram, a non-diagnostic fiberoptic bronchoscopy and a computed tomography and lung scanning both of which were highly suggestive for malignancy. In fact, the former showed obstruction of the main left bronchus, of the superior bronchus for the left upper lobe and of the apical bronchus for the left lower lobe, the latter showed a total cessation of blood flow through the left lung. Pulmonary angiography, however, was normal and aortography showed dilatated and twisted left bronchial arteries. Computed tomography and lung scanning came back to normal after bronchoscopic aspiration of endobronchial clots and a nonspecific antibiotic therapy were carried out. Although very infrequent, bronchial stenosis on CT and complete monolateral unperfusion on lung scintigraphy may occur in patients with hemoptysis of benign origin. We recommend the use of pulmonary arteriography in patients with the above pattern when diagnostic doubt remains after bronchoscopy.     

甲状腺良、恶性结节的临床、超声及细胞学特征分析

目的:研究良、恶性甲状腺结节的相关临床因素、超声特征与甲状腺细针穿刺细胞学检查结果之间的关系。方法:收集2010年1月至2013年12月在上海市第一人民医院因甲状腺结节就诊,并进行超声引导下FNAB检查患者的临床资料,以FNAB细胞学诊断结果为诊断标准,分析和比较不同性质甲状腺结节患者的年龄、性别、甲状腺疾病家族史、临床症状、血清甲状腺激素、甲状腺自身抗体(TPOAb和TRAb)水平,超声检查所发现的结节数量、性状、前后径与横径比(AP/TR)、回声类型、钙化类型、边界状态、血流情况等因素,采用Logistic多因素回归,探讨这些临床和超声特征与甲状腺良、恶性结节之间的关系。结果:根据FNAB结果,1592例患者中,良性结节者1492例,恶性结节者77例,结果不确定者23例。以良性组作为对照,年龄40岁、TPOAb(+)是恶性甲状腺结节的独立危险因素(P0.05);出现钙化点、细小钙化斑、边界不规整的超声表现的恶性甲状腺的风险显著升高(P0.05)。结论:超声检查甲状腺结节出现钙化点、细小钙化斑或边界不规整等与FNAB诊断的甲状腺恶性结节之间存在明显的关联。     

EBUS-TBNA Provides Highest RNA Yield for Multiple Biomarker Testing from Routinely Obtained Small Biopsies in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Patients - A Comparative Study of Three Different Minimal Invasive Sampling Methods

Background

Multiple biomarker testing is necessary to facilitate individualized treatment of lung cancer patients. More than 80% of lung cancers are diagnosed based on very small tumor samples. Often there is not enough tissue for molecular analysis. We compared three minimal invasive sampling methods with respect to RNA quantity for molecular testing.

Methods

106 small biopsies were prospectively collected by three different methods forceps biopsy, endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) guided transbronchial needle aspiration (TBNA), and CT-guided core biopsy. Samples were split into two halves. One part was formalin fixed and paraffin embedded for standard pathological evaluation. The other part was put in RNAlater for immediate RNA/DNA extraction. If the pathologist confirmed the diagnosis of non-small cell lung cancer(NSCLC), the following molecular markers were tested: EGFR mutation, ERCC1, RRM1 and BRCA1.

Results

Overall, RNA-extraction was possible in 101 out of 106 patients (95.3%). We found 49% adenocarcinomas, 38% squamouscarcinomas, and 14% non-otherwise-specified(NOS). The highest RNA yield came from endobronchial ultrasound guided needle aspiration, which was significantly higher than bronchoscopy (37.74±41.09 vs. 13.74±15.53 ng respectively, P = 0.005) and numerically higher than CT-core biopsy (37.74±41.09 vs. 28.72±44.27 ng respectively, P = 0.244). EGFR mutation testing was feasible in 100% of evaluable patients and its incidence was 40.8%, 7.9% and 14.3% in adenocarcinomas, squamouscarcinomas and NSCLC NOS subgroup respectively. There was no difference in the feasibility of molecular testing between the three sampling methods with feasibility rates for ERCC1, RRM1 and BRCA1 of 91%, 87% and 81% respectively.

Conclusion

All three methods can provide sufficient tumor material for multiple biomarkers testing from routinely obtained small biopsies in lung cancer patients. In our study EBUS guided needle aspiration provided the highest amount of tumor RNA compared to bronchoscopy or CT guided core biopsy. Thus EBUS should be considered as an acceptable option for tissue acquisition for molecular testing.     

Fiberoptic Bronchoscopy in Diagnosis of Opportunistic Lung Infections: Assessment of Sputa,Washings, Brushings and Biopsy Specimens

Fiberoptic bronchoscopy (washings, brushings and biopsies) was done in 25 cases of proven opportunistic pulmonary infections in compromised hosts. Diagnostic yields of bronchoscopic procedures and expectorated sputum were compared. Sputum examination gave the lowest yield (14 percent). Bronchial washings and brushings were diagnostic in 30 percent and 38 percent of patients, respectively. On transbronchial biopsy of the lung (TBB) pathogens were identified in 75 percent of patients with Pneumocystis carinii infection and 67 percent of patients with other opportunistic infections. The overall TBB yield of 73 percent was superior (P<0.05) to that of either washings or brushings. The yield from combining washings and brushings was greater than from either procedure alone, but combination with TBB did not result in any significant improvement. TBB is recommended as a useful diagnostic procedure in patients with suspected opportunistic pulmonary infections. Morbidity was minimal with this procedure, and the need for thoracotomy was reduced when it was used.     

Needle Biopsy as an Aid to the Precise Diagnosis of Intrathoracic Disease

The place of needle biopsy of the lung and pleura in the diagnosis of intrathoracic disease was assessed by means of an analysis of the results of this procedure in 78 cases involving 111 separate biopsy attempts. The Vim-Silverman needle was used throughout. Needle biopsy of the lung, restricted to cases with localized radiological lesions peripherally situated and suggesting neoplasm, yielded a specific diagnosis in 29 of 48 patients. The comparison with other diagnostic aids, bronchoscopy, sputum cytology and scalene node biopsy, was favourable, at least in the case of peripheral tumours. There were eight complications, only three of which were of significance. Needle biopsy of the pleura proved to be a less rewarding procedure, a specific diagnosis being obtained in only seven of 30 cases. There were, however, no serious complications with this latter procedure. It was concluded that needle biopsy is of some value as a relatively safe addition to diagnostic techniques in chest disease.     

Use of navigation bronchoscopy for biopsy and endobronchial fiducial placement

Electromagnetic navigation bronchoscopy (ENB) is a technique that can be used to biopsy pulmonary lesions beyond areas that are traditionally accessible by bronchoscopy. It can also guide biopsies of peribronchial lymph nodes and guide the placement of fiducial markers for stereotactic radiosurgery. With ENB, the patient is placed in a magnetic field and their anatomy is merged with a 3D reconstructed chest cat scan (CCT). A locatable, steerable probe is used to guide a working channel to the target, usually a peripheral tumor. Biopsies can be taken, and markers can be placed. The accuracy of this system depends largely on a small bronchus leading toward to target. The diagnostic yield is similar to CT-guided biopsies, with a false-negative rate of about 30%, although results may be improved with combined ENB and radial endoscopic ultrasound (EUS). The incidence of pneumothorax is 5% to 8% with ENB-directed biopsies compared with approximately 30% with CT-guided transthoracic biopsy.     

Fine needle aspiration cytologic findings of micropapillary carcinoma in the lung: a case report

BACKGROUND: Micropapillary carcinoma is a variant of adenocarcinoma described in many anatomic sites and most recently in the lung. The cytologic recognition of this distinct pathologic entity in transthoracic needle aspiration specimens is important in providing prognostic information and therapeutic guidance. CASE: A 58-year-old woman presented with a < 1-cm lesion in the left breast identified on screening mammogram. A core biopsy of this lesion revealed an estrogen and progesterone receptor positive tubular carcinoma. Before a hookwire localization biopsy, a chest x-ray revealed a 1.7-cm spiculated mass in the right lower lobe. The diagnosis of adenocarcinoma with micropapillary features was made by fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC). The lobectomy specimen showed a combination of adenocarcinoma, papillary adenocarcinoma and micropapillary carcinoma. CONCLUSION: Micropapillary carcinoma is a unique variant of adenocarcinoma, having important clinical associations because of its propensity for angiolymphatic invasion and higher stage at disease presentation. This case demonstrates the cytomorphologic characteristics of micropapillary carcinoma in a transthoracic FNA of the lung.     

Role and accuracy of rapid on‐site evaluation of CT‐guided fine needle aspiration cytology of lung nodules

A. Fassina, M. Corradin, D. Zardo, R. Cappellesso, F. Corbetti and M. Fassan
Role and accuracy of rapid on‐site evaluation of CT‐guided fine needle aspiration cytology of lung nodules Objective: To prospectively investigate the role of trans‐thoracic fine needle aspiration cytology (FNA) and the value of rapid on‐site evaluation (ROSE) in the clinical management of patients with pulmonary nodules/masses. Computed tomography (CT)‐guided FNA is commonly employed for the diagnosis of lung lesions although its position in the diagnostic work‐up is still a matter of debate. Methods: We reviewed 311 patients (211 males and 100 females, mean age 69.5 years) admitted to the University of Padova from 2004 to 2008, correlating the results of cytology with the available histological findings obtained from biopsies, surgery or autopsy. Results: Smears were adequate in 305 cases (98%) and inadequate in six (2%); a diagnosis of malignancy was achieved in 263 cases (86.2%); 39 cases (12.8%) were classified as non‐malignant; and three cases (1%) were classified as suspect for malignancy. When correlated with histology, FNA with ROSE discriminated malignant versus non‐malignant lesions (Cohen’s kappa 0.78), with three false negatives (sensitivity 96.3%, specificity 100%). Moreover, a satisfactory overall agreement of 71.4% was achieved in differentiating the cancer histological types. Pneumothorax occurred in 13 cases, haemoptysis in four, and chest pain in three. A single aspiration was sufficient in 79.6% of patients; two aspirations were needed in 17.4% and three in 3%. The low complication rate was related to the limited number of aspirations needed due to ROSE. Conclusions: FNA with ROSE is a safe and useful tool in the diagnostic work‐up of lung cancer patients, with no contraindications to its use as the first diagnostic procedure for all patients with peripheral lung lesions. FNA with ROSE should be reconsidered in the guidelines for diagnosing and managing lung cancer.     

Diagnostic pitfalls in fine needle aspiration of solitary pulmonary nodules: two cases with radio-cyto-histological correlation

Background

Fine needle aspiration is an important tool for diagnosis and preoperative evaluation of solitary nodules of the lung. It provides a definitive diagnosis in most patients at low cost with minimal trauma. However, because of the nature of the study and the presentation of the cells in a more distorted and incomplete tissue structure than a histological slide, false positive results can occur. Prior detailed clinical knowledge about the patient, procedures and methods of radiology in obtaining the aspirate specimen is extremely useful in the accurate interpretation of fine needle cytological specimens.

Case presentation

We report two cases of solitary pulmonary nodules in two elderly females, which were initially diagnosed as malignant by fine needle aspiration biopsy. Both cases subsequently underwent pulmonary lobectomy in which, one turned out to be a pulmonary hamartoma and the other appeared to be a middle lobe syndrome of the right lung with liver tissue contamination at the time of fine needle aspiration of the lung.

Conclusions

We are now strong believers that much care must be taken in the interpretation of fine needle aspiration of solitary nodules of the lung. Complete study of the entire specimen, including the cell block, is warranted, since what one interprets as malignant, could have different features in another part of the sample. Last but not the least, prior knowledge of the complete clinical history of the patient together with the salient radiological findings would greatly facilitate the cytopathologist to reach an accurate diagnosis.     

经支气管针吸活检术对肺癌伴纵隔淋巴结转移的临床诊断价值

目的评价经支气管针吸活检术（transbronchial needle aspiration,TBNA）对伴有纵膈淋巴结转移的肺癌临床诊断价值。方法对肺部CT检查疑诊为伴有淋巴结转移的肺癌53例患者,在常规支气管镜行刷检和活检后,对转移肿大的纵隔淋巴结行经支气管针吸活检术（TBNA）,对获取的标本实行相应的病理学检查。结果 53例患者经三种结合的纤支镜检查明确诊断46例,其中组织活检、刷检和TBNA的阳性率分别是64.2%、60.4%、58.5%,常规组织刷检及活检的阳性率为69.8%,结合TBNA术的阳性率增加至86.8%。参检者术中及术后均未发现严重的并发症。结论 TBNA术对于伴有纵膈淋巴结转移的肺癌患者具有较高的临床诊断价值。     

The role of transbronchial lung biopsy in the diagnosis of solitary pulmonary nodule

Transbronchial lung biopsy (TBLB) is a well-recognized diagnostic technique in diffuse interstitial lung diseases, but it is not considered to be the first choice in investigation of solitary pulmonary nodules (SPN). The main idea of this study was to increase the sensitivity of bronchoscopy using multiple techniques, especially TBLB, thus to avoid more aggressive diagnostic procedures. The objective of this prospective study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of TBLB in the diagnosis of SPN, in comparison with other bronchoscopic techniques. Fifty patients with chest x-ray finding consistent with SPN underwent bronchoscopy with bronchial washing, brushing, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and TBLB were included in this study. Thirty-one patients suffered from malignant tumors, while 19 patients had nonmalignant lesions. TBLB achieved overall diagnostic sensitivity of 62%, BAL of 29%, bronchial brushing of 16% and washing of 6%. Combining all techniques together, bronchoscopy had overall sensitivity of 86%. Concerning malignant lesions, TBLB had a sensitivity of 65%, specificity of 100%, and accuracy of 82%. TBLB had a significantly better yield for lesions with a diameter > or = 25 mm than for lesions of < 25 mm (sensitivity of 82% and 53% respectively, p < 0.05). Diagnostic yield improved significantly with the increasing number of specimens (less than 3 specimens: sensitivity 59%, 3 or more specimens: sensitivity 87%, p < 0.05). Complications of TBLB occurred in 2 (4%) patients: 1 incomplete pneumothorax and 1 hemorrhage. According to the results, we conclude that TBLB is an accurate and safe technique for the diagnosis of pulmonary solitary nodule with a diameter equal or greater than 25 mm.