Adenine nucleotide control of the rate of oxygen uptake by rat heart mitochondria over a 15- to 20-fold range

Rat heart mitochondria oxidizing pyruvate (in the presence of 20% as much malate) took up nearly the amount of oxygen required for complete oxidation to CO₂. Thus pyruvate, a physiological substrate of the citrate cycle, is oxidized through the entire cycle in these mitochondria, and they seem suitable for study of regulation of integrated mitochondrial energy transduction. By addition of graded amounts of hexokinase or pyruvate kinase to the suspending medium (in the presence of excess glucose or phosphoenolpyruvate), a wide range of steady-state values of the $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ concentration ratio was obtained. At a constant concentration of phosphate, the steady-state rate of oxygen uptake by rat heart mitochondria oxidizing pyruvate was a function of the adenylate energy charge or of the $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratio, and relatively independent of the absolute concentrations of these nucleotides. The oxygen uptake rates typically spanned a range of about 20-fold. At very high values of the $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratio, the rate of oxygen uptake is much lower than the “state 4” rate seen after added ADP has been phosphorylated. This result suggests that “state 4” respiration, at least in these freshly prepared mitochondria, measures the rate at which ADP is made available by ATPase activity, rather than indicating uncoupling of electron transport from phosphorylation. The concentration of orthophosphate affected the rate of oxygen uptake and the pattern of response to the $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratio or the energy charge, but the effects did not seem interpretable in terms of the mass-action expression for hydrolysis of ATP, $\text{(ATP}\text{ADP)}$ (P_i.     

Temporal variation of adenine ribonucleotides during the cell cycle of Chinese hamster fibroblasts in culture

Chinese hamster fibroblasts in monolayer culture (Don-C cell line) were synchronized by selective detachment of metaphase cells after brief treatment with colcemid. Replicate monolayer cultures were harvested at intervals after synchronization and ethanolic extracts were prepared for the determination of adenine ribonucleotides with the luciferin-luciferase assay. The level of ATP increased approx. 145% during the cell cycle, with the most rapid increase occurring during the G1 phase. One hour after synchronization (early G 1 phase), 1.3 nmoles of $\text{ATP}\text{10}{}^6$ cells were observed; a maximum of 3.2 nmoles of $\text{ATP}\text{10}{}^6$ cells was reached at 12 h (G 2 phase). The adenylate energy charge, $\text{(}\text{ATP}\text{+}\text{1}\text{2}\text{ADP}\text{)/(}\text{ATP}\text{+}\text{ADP}\text{+}\text{AMP}\text{)}$ was lowest during the G 1 phase (0.7) and increased to 0.9 during the late S and G 2 phase. A slight decrease of energy charge was observed during the second mitosis.     

Coordination of adenylate energy charge and phosphorylation state during ischemia and under physiological conditions in rat liver and kidney

The relation of the adenylate energy charge $\text{(}\text{ATP}\text{+}\text{1}\text{2}\text{ADP/ATP}\text{+}\text{ADP}\text{+}\text{AMP}\text{)}$ to the phosphorylation state (ATP)/(ADP)(HPO₄^2?) in rat liver and kidney was analyzed. Under physiological conditions and in ischemia, the two regulatory parameters, calculated from reported values for adenine nucleotides and inorganic phosphate (P_i) and from new observations, were closely coordinated. Energy charge was an inverse linear function of P_i and -log (1 - energy charge) was a positive linear function of log phosphorylation state. To evaluate experimental data with known energy charge, but unknown P_i, and to determine the theoretical relation between energy charge and phosphorylation state, P_i was estimated from a) the regression equation: P_i, μmol/g wet wt tissue = 1.05 - energy charge/0.073 and b) the empirical relationship: (P_i/2P_a) + energy charge = k, where P_a = σAMP + 2ADP + 3ATP and k = 1. With both estimates, the relation between phosphorylation state and energy charge for the experimental data was, within error, the same as that observed with measured P_i and concordant with theoretical values. Over the physiological range of energy charge (～0.85 – 0.95, log phosphorylation state ～3.3 – 4.3), apparent ΔG_ATP (×2) was closer to the range of ΔG observed by Wilson $\text{et al}$ (Biochem. J. $\text{140}$:57, 1974) for transfer of two electrons from mitochondrial NAD to the cytochrome c couple than the ΔG_ATP (×2) they reported, supporting their conclusion that near-equilibrium exists between the mitochondrial respiratory chain and the cytoplasmic phosphorylation state under physiological conditions. From evidence presented, it is postulated that the phosphorylation state is regulated by the adenylate energy charge.     

The influence of NAD+-linked substrates on energy conservation at sites 2 and 3 in mitochondria treated with inorganic arsenate.

Exposure of rat liver mitochondria to inorganic arsenate followed by reisolation and washing to remove the added arsenate results in uncoupled respiration with succinate and ascorbate ($\text{ADP}\text{0}\text{=0}$), but $\text{ADP}\text{0}$ and $\text{ATP}\text{0}$ values of 1.3 to 1.6 with 3-hydroxybutyrate or glutamate. $\text{ADP}\text{0}$ and $\text{ATP}\text{0}$ values greater than 1.0 with NAD⁺-linked substrates arise as a result of partial reactivation of coupling at sites 2 and 3 by these substrates. In the presence of rotenone, NAD⁺-linked substrates can still reactivate coupling with succinate or ascorbate at these sites. The extent of reactivation in the presence of rotenone by 3-hydroxybutyrate is decreased by simultaneous addition of acetoacetate. The results suggest that the coupling at sites 2 and 3 is amenable to control through changes in the reduction state of some specific components of the respiratory chain located remotely from these sites.     

The regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase by fatty acids in isolated rabbit heart mitochondria.

The rate of pyruvate oxidation by isolated rabbit heart mitochondria was inhibited by fatty acylcarnitine derivatives. The extent of inhibition by pyruvate oxidation in State 3 was greatest with palmitylcarnitine and only a minimal inhibition was observed with acetylcarnitine, while octanoylcarnitine or octanoate caused an intermediate extent of inhibition. Analyses of the intramitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ and $\text{NADH}\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}$ ratios under the different conditions of incubation indicated that it is unlikely that changes in either or both of these parameters were the primary negative effectors of the rate of pyruvate oxidation. A positive correlation between the decrease in the rate of pyruvate oxidation and the decrease in the level of free CoASH in the mitochondria was observed. Extraction and assay of the pyruvate dehydrogenase from rabbit heart mitochondria during the time course of the fatty acid-mediated inhibition of pyruvate oxidation indicated that pyruvate dehydrogenase was strongly inactivated when palmitylcarnitine was the fatty acid, while incubation with octanoate and acetylcarnitine resulted in less extensive inactivation of pyruvate dehydrogenase. Measurement of the effects of NADH, NAD⁺, acetyl-CoA, and CoASH on the inactivation of pyruvate dehydrogenase extracted from rabbit heart mitochondria indicated that NADH and acetyl-CoA activated the pyruvate dehydrogenasee kinase while CoASH strongly inhibited the kinase and NAD⁺ was without effect. In addition, palmityl-CoA and octanoyl-CoA had little, if any, effect on the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase activity. It was observed that palmityl-CoA but not octanoyl-CoA strongly inhibited the activity of the extracted pyruvate dehydrogenase. Hence, it is concluded that (a) decreased mitochondrial CoASH levels, which essentially remove a potent inhibitor of the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase, (b) possibly a diminished free CoASH supply, which may be utilized as a substrate for the active complex, and (c) direct inhibitory effects of palmityl-CoA on the active form of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex combine to make palmitylcarnitine a much more potent inhibitor of mitochondrial pyruvate oxidation than shorter chain length acylcarnitine derivatives.     

Effect of glucose on AMP-catabolite release during fatty acid perfusion in normal and ischemic rat hearts

Isolated rat hearts were perfused retrogradely with a modified, oxygenated Tyrode solution containing 0.5 mM palmitate (complexed to albumin in a molar ratio of 6:1) with or without 11mM glucose. Fatty acid perfusion induced a decrease in contractile behaviour which was partly counteracted by glucose. The energy charge $\text{{([}\text{ATP}\text{] +}\text{1}\text{2}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{])/([}\text{ATP}\text{] + [}\text{ADP}\text{] + [}\text{AMP}\text{]}}$ of the tissue was not altered although a significant drop was observed in creatine phosphate/ATP ratio in the absence of glucose. The release of AMP-catabolites, adenosine, inosine and hypoxanthine, occurring during fatty acid perfusion was reduced by glucose. In the absence of glucose fatty acids still induce lactate release indicating an enhanced glycogenolysis. In ischemic hearts the fatty acid-induced decrease in mechanical performance was significantly more severe when glucose was absent, while the glucose protection could also be observed in the energy charge of the ischemic tissue and the release of AMP-catabolites in the coronary effluent. The results suggest that loss of adenosine, inosine and hypoxanthine might contribute to the detrimental actions of a high fatty acid/albumin ratio upon the myocardium and confirms the protective action of glucose.     

Coordinate control of intermediary metabolism in rat liver by the insulin/glucagon ratio during starvation and after glucose refeeding. Regulatory significance of long-chain acyl-CoA and cyclic AMP.

The levels of serum insulin, glucagon, and free fatty acids (FFA) and the tissue concentrations of hepatic cyclic AMP, long-chain acyl-CoA (LCA), adenine nucleotides, inorganic phosphate, the intermediates of the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, the citric acid cycle (including acetyl-CoA and free CoA), and the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial redox couples were determined in the rat 12, 24, and 48 h after food withdrawal and 5, 10, 20, 40, 60, and 120 min after the refeeding of glucose. Using the measured metabolite contents in the liver, the alterations in the concentration of malate, oxaloacetate, citrate, and α-ketoglutarate and the changes in the energy state of the adenine nucleotide system and the redox state of the NAD system were attributed to the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial compartments by applying established calculation methods. Glucose refeeding provoked significant alterations in all parameters investigated. These changes occurred within minutes, reversing the hormone and metabolite pattern which had developed within 24 h in response to food withdrawal. Particularly, glucose refeeding resulted in a drastic increase in the insulin/glucagon ratio. Simultaneously, the level of serum FFA and the concentration of LCA in the liver declined. The latter alteration was accompanied by an increase in the cytoplasmic and a decrease in the mitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}\text{×}\text{P}$ ratios. Moreover, the redox state of the cytoplasmic NAD system was shifted toward the oxidized state. When the appropriate data were plotted against each other, highly significant correlations were obtained (i) between the insulin/glucagon ratio and the serum FFA concentration, (ii) between the serum FFA concentration and the concentration of hepatic LCA, (iii) between the hepatic LCA concentration and the cytoplasmic energy state, and (iv) between the cytoplasmic energy state and the redox state of the cytoplasmic NAD system. These findings are interpreted to support the hypothesis derived from experiments carried out in vitro that the insulin/glucagon ratio via the FFA-dependent concentration of hepatic LCA might affect the translocation of adenine nucleotides between the cytoplasmic and the mitochondrial compartment, thereby regulating the cytoplasmic energy state and the redox state of the cytoplasmic NAD system, consequently. Glucose refeeding provoked rapid coordinate changes in the concentration of the intermediates of both the citric acid cycle and the Embden-Meyerhof chain, indicating the altered substrate flow through these pathways. Those metabolites, known to modulate the activity of key regulatory enzymes in vitro, were analyzed with respect to their suggested regulatory function. As to the established shift from pyruvate carboxylation to pyruvate decarboxylation after glucose refeeding, the data revealed that the decrease in pyruvate carboxylase activity can be attributed to the decrease in the intramitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratio and the simultaneous fall in acetyl-CoA concentration, while the coordinate increase in pyruvate dehydrogenase activity can be ascribed to the decline in the concentration of LCA and, consequently, in the ratios of $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$, $\text{NADH}\text{NAD}$, and acetyl-$\text{CoA}\text{CoA}$ within the mitochondria. As for the citric acid cycle, increased citrate synthesis from acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate was supported by the rapid drop in the concentration of the established inhibitor of citrate synthesis, LCA. In contrast, the concentration of succinyl-CoA, an inhibitor of the enzyme in vitro, remained practically constant, questioning its regulatory function under the present experimental conditions. In addition to the activation of citrate synthase, the coordinate activation of isocitrate dehydrogenase was indicated by the LCA-mediated decline in both the mitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ and the $\text{NADH}\text{NAD}$ ratios. Glucose refeeding immediately reduced urea excretion to basal values. This alteration was preceded by a drastic fall in the tissue concentration of cyclic AMP, supporting the physiological role of the nucleotide in the control of hepatic gluconeogenesis. In contrast, the observed changes in the concentration of the effectory acting metabolites (ATP, AMP, fructose 1,6-diphosphate, citrate, and alanine) were incompatible with the suggested function of these intermediates in switching over the substrate flow through the Embden-Meyerhof pathway from gluconeogenesis to glycolysis. The results are discussed in reference to the known rapid stimulation of fatty acid biosynthesis in the liver and to the transfer of reducing equivalents by the different shuttles of the inner mitochondrial membrane. In summary, it can be concluded that the insulin/glucagon ratio in a moment-to-moment fashion controls the glucose balance across the liver by regulating hepatic intermediary metabolism via the concentration of both LCA and cyclic AMP.     

Changes in hepatic energy charge,blood ketone body ratio,and indocyanine green clearance in relation to DNA synthesis after hepatectomy

The changes in the energy charge (ATP+0.5ADP)/ (ATP+ADP+AMP) levels of the remnant liver were studied in relation to changes in the incorporation rate of methyl-³H-thymidine into DNA, the blood ratio of acetoacetate/β-hydroxybutyrate and indocyanine green (ICG) clearance in 70% hepatectomized rabbits. The energy charge levels of the remnant liver decreased rapidly to 0.767 from 0.856 of normal, despite a marked enhancement of mitochondrial phosphorylative activity, concomitant with the fall in blood ketone body ratio, before a maximal increase of DNA synthesis after hepatectomy. Blood ketone body ratio was correlated with hepatic energy charge (r=0.696, p<0.01). After a maximal increase of DNA synthesis, hepatic energy charge levels and the blood keton body ratios increased gradually to normal levels, concomitant with a rise in ICG clearance. Energy charge levels of the remnant liver can be evaluated by the blood ketone body ratio.     

Light scattering and quenching of 9-aminoacridine fluorescence as indicators of the phosphorylation state of the adenylate system in intact spinach chloroplasts

Upon illumination of suspensions of intact chloroplasts, fluorescence of 9-aminoacridine was quenched, light scattering was increased, chlorophyll fluorescence was decreased after an initial increase, and chloroplast $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratios were increased. The response of 9-aminoacridine fluorescence quenching and light scattering to light intensity, anaerobiosis and inhibition of electron transport by DCMU was similar to that shown by chloroplast $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratios. It is discussed under what conditions 9-aminoacridine fluorescence quenching or light scattering can be used to monitor changes in the phosphorylation state of the chloroplast adenylate system.     

Relations between extramitochondrial and intramitochondrial adenine nucleotide systems

The control of oxidative phosphorylation by the extramitochondrial $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ ratio and [P_i] was investigated by incubations of isolated mitochondria with an ADP regenerating system and by a new perifusion technique using glass filters for immobilization of mitochondria. With mitochondria from different sources oxidizing different substrates and with both techniques, similar results were obtained. Changes of the extramitochondrial $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ ratio from about 100 to 5 transfer mitochondria from the resting state (state 4) to the fully active state (state 3). The importance of the adenine nucleotide translocator in this transition was demonstrated by the influence of its specific inhibitor carboxyatractyloside. The sensitivity to the inhibitor was more pronounced in states with high $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ ratios than in the fully active state. In the hexokinase-glucose system the action of the inhibitor caused a transition to a new steady state, where a decreased $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ ratio overcomes the inhibition. Thus, a partial inhibition of the translocator shifted the control characteristics to lower $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ ratios. When the concentration of inorganic phosphate was decreased, the main effect was a reduction of the maximum rate of oxidative phosphorylation (i.e., in state 3), whereas the $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ sensitive range was not altered. This effect is caused by changes in the intramitochondrial phosphorylation potential. Furthermore, this indicates that the kinetic properties of the adenine nucleotide translocator prevent a simple equilibration of the phosphorylation potential across the inner membrane. This is also demonstrated by the fact that the extramitochondrial formation of glucose-6-phosphate and the intramitochondrial synthesis of citrulline compete for ATP.     

An adenine nucleotide translocase in the procaryote Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum

ATP synthesis, ATP hydrolysis and ADP uptake by membrane vesicles of Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum are inhibited by inhibitors of mitochondrial $\text{ADP}\text{ATP}$ translocases. Atractyloside binds to one of the membrane proteins. These data demonstrate the presence of an eucaryotic type of $\text{ADP}\text{ATP}$ translocase in a procaryotic microorganism and stress the unique position of methanogenic bacteria in evolution.     

A re-evaluation of conditions required for an accurate estimation of the extramitochondrial ATPADP ratio in isolated rat-liver mitochondria

The values reported in the literature for the extramitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratio in resting rat-liver mitochondria (State 4) vary widely. The conditions required for an accurate determination of this parameter were therefore investigated. (1) In experiments with rat-liver mitochondria incubated under State-4 conditions, it was found that the extramitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratio, as calculated from the values measured in neutralised perchloric acid extracts, was lower than that estimated from the concentrations of creatine and creatine phosphate, using the metabolite indicator method. The discrepancy is due to hydrolysis of ATP occurring in the presence of perchloric acid. (2) Conditions are described for minimising ATP hydrolysis in the presence of perchloric acid, and include the use of low concentrations of perchloric acid, short times of exposure to the acid before neutralisation, low temperatures and the presence of excess EDTA. Under these conditions, the values obtained for the extramitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratio agreed with those calculated by the metabolite indicator method, provided ratios do not exceed the value of 100. (3) In cases where the extramitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ does exceed 100, phenol/chloroform/isoamyl alcohol must be used to quench the reactions, as described by Slater et al. (Slater, E.C., Rosing, J. and Mol, A. (1973) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 292, 534–553). With this method, the extramitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratio was found to have a value of more than 1000 in rat-liver mitochondria incubated with succinate + rotenone in the resting state (pH 7.0; T = 37°C), in agreement with Slater et al.     

Control of mitochondrial respiration: a quantitative evaluation of the roles of cytochrome c and oxygen.

The dependence of the mitochondrial respiratory rate on the reduction of cytochrome c has been measured as a function of the exogenous $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ ratio and pH. The respiratory rate at $\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ values of less than 10^-1m^-1 is proportional to the reduction of cytochrome c and independent of pH from pH 6.5 to pH 8.O. The maximal turnover number (at 100% reduction) for cytochrome c is approximately 70 s^?1. As the $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ ratio is increased from 10^?1m^?1 to 10⁴m^?1, the respiration at any given level of reduction of cytochrome c is progressively inhibited. Greater inhibition is observed at more oxidized levels of cytochorme c with respiratory control values for oxidation of reduced cytochrome c exceeding 10. The behavior of mitochondrial respiratory control is shown to be quantitatively consistent with a proposed mechanism in which the regulation occurs in the reaction of oxygen with cytochrome oxidase. A steady-state rate expression is derived which fits the mitochondrial respiratory rate dependence on (i) the extramitochondrial $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ ratio; (ii) the level of reduction of cytochrome c (or the intramitochondrial $\text{[}\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{]}\text{[NADH])}$ at different $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ values; (iii) the pH of the suspending medium. This rate expression appears to correctly predict the relationships of the cytoplasmic $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ ratio, the mitochondrial $\text{[}\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{]}\text{[}\text{NADH}\text{]}$ ratio, and the mitochondrial respiratory rate in intact cells as well as suspensions of isolated mitochondria.     

The inactivation of pyruvate dehydrogenase by fatty acid in isolated rat liver mitochondria.

The influence of fatty acid on the interconversion of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH) between its active (dephospho-) and inactive (phospho-) forms and on the intramitochondrial $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$, $\text{NADH}\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}$ and $\text{acetyl-CoA}\text{CoASH}$ ratios was studied in isolated rat liver mitochondria. Conditions were found in which the PDH activity was inversely correlated only with the $\text{NADH}\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}$ ratio. Under other conditions the PDH activity was inversely correlated solely with the $\text{acetyl-CoA}\text{CoASH}$ ratio. These experiments suggest that the activity of the regulatory enzymes involved in the inactivation and reactivation of the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex may be controlled by both the intramitochondrial $\text{NADH}\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}$ and $\text{acetyl-CoA}\text{CoASH}$ ratios.     

Regulation of cellular energy metabolism. The Crabtree effect

The Crabtree effect (inhibition of respiration by glycolysis) is observed in cells with approximately equal glycolytic and respiratory capacities for ATP synthesis. Addition of glucose to aerobic suspensions of glucose-starved cells (Sarcoma 180 ascites tumor cells) causes a burst of respiration and lactate production due to ATP utilization for glucose phosphorylation by hexokinase and phosphofructokinase. This burst of activity is followed by inhibition of both respiration and glycolysis, the former to below the value before glucose addition (Crabtree effect). Both the respiratory rate and the glycolytic flux appear to be regulated by the cytosolic $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ albeit by completely different mechanisms. Respiration is regulated by the free energy of hydrolysis of ATP, such that the rate increases as the $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ decreases and decreases as the $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ increases. The regulatory enzymes of glycolysis are activated by ADP (AMP) and P_i and inhibited by ATP. Thus both respiration and glycolysis increase or decrease as the $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ decreases or increases. The parallel regulation of both ATP-producing pathways by this common metabolite ratio is consistent with the cytoplasmic $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{][}\text{P}{}_{\mathrm{i}}\text{]}$ being an important determinant of homeostatic regulation of cellular energy metabolism.     

Light scattering,chlorophyll fluorescence and state of the adenylate system in illuminated spinach leaves

Scattering of green light and chlorophyll fluorescence by spinach leaves kept in a stream of air or nitrogen were compared with leaf adenylate levels during illumination with blue, red or far-red light. Energy charge and ATP-ADP ratios exhibited considerable variability in different leaves both in the dark and in the light. Variability is explained by different possible states of the reaction oxidizing triose phosphate or reducing 3-phosphoglycerate. Except when oxygen levels were low, there was an inverse relationship between light scattering and chlorophyll fluorescence during illumination with blue or red light. When CO₂ was added to a stream of CO₂-free air, chlorophyll fluorescence increased, sometimes after a transient decrease, and both light scattering and leaf $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratios decreased. Similar observations were made when air was replaced by nitrogen under blue or high-intensity red light. Under these conditions, over-reduction caused inhibition of electron transport and phosphorylation in chloroplasts. However, when air was replaced by nitrogen during illumination with low-intensity red light or far-red light, light scattering increased instead of decreasing. Under these light conditions, $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratios were maintained in the light. They decreased drastically only after darkening. Although $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ ratios responded faster than light scattering or the slow secondary decline of chlorophyll fluorescence due to illumination, it appeared that in the steady state, light scattering and chlorophyll fluorescence are useful indicators of the phosphorylation state of the leaf adenylate system at least under aerobic conditions, when chloroplast and extrachloroplast adenylate systems can effectively communicate.     

Metabolic effects of glucose deprivation and of various sugars in normal and transformed fibrobalst cell lines.

The sugar composition of the growth medium influenced the $\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{NADH}$ ratio, pyruvate and lactate production, and ATP levels in both normal and transformed fibroblast cell lines growing in tissue culture. Removal of glucose led to a rapid three- to fourfold rise in the $\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{NADH}$ ratio, followed by a slower decline in the content of ATP. However, there was no change in the adenylate energy charge [$\text{(}\text{ATP}\text{+}\text{1}\text{2}\text{ADP}\text{)/(}\text{ATP + ADP + AMP}\text{)}$] over a 2-h period. The $\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{NADH}$ ratio was restored to the original level within 10 s of glucose readdition. The $\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{NADH}$ratios in cell lines growing on galactose were as high as for those incubated without sugars; growth on mannose or fructose produced intermediate ratios. There was an inverse relationship between the $\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{NADH}$ ratio and pyruvate-lactate production for glucose, fructose and galactose. Thus, all cell lines had a high production of pyruvate and lactate but a low $\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{NADH}$ ratio when grown on glucose. In contrast, when galactose served as the sugar source, acid production was low, while the ratio was high. All cell lines had comparable hexokinase activity, and glucose was the best substrate, mannose intermediate and fructose poorest. Hexokinase activity did not correlate with the relative degree of utilization of the sugars. These results suggest that the sugar composition of the growth medium affects the metabolic pattern of a cell line, including the $\text{NAD}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{NADH}$ ratio, the ATP content and the production of pyruvate and lactate.     

Transport as the basis of the kok effect. Levels of some photosynthetic intermediates and activation of light-regulated enzymes during photosynthesis of chloroplasts and green leaf protoplasts

Experiments were performed with intact chloroplasts and leaf cell protoplasts isolated from spinach. The light-dependent decrease in (H⁺) in the chloroplast stroma counteracts carbon reduction and is offset at low light intensities by a large decrease in NADP and a significant increase in $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ ratios. Excess accumulation of NADPH and/or ATP permits 3-phosphogly cerate reduction to occur. With increasing light intensity, NADP levels and $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ ratios increased. High rates of photosynthesis were observed at high and at low $\text{[}\text{ATP}\text{]}\text{[}\text{ADP}\text{]}$ ratios. Levels of dihydroxyacetone phosphate were dramatically increased in the light. In chloroplasts, this permitted conversion to ribulose bisphosphate which on carboxylation yields 3-phosphoglycerate. The light-dependent alkalization of the chloroplast stroma is known to be responsible for phosphogly cerate retention in the chloroplasts. A high chloroplast ratio of phosphogly cerate to dihydroxyacetone phosphate aids carbon reduction. Measured ratios of dihydroxyacetone phosphate to phosphogly cerate were averages between low chloroplast ratios and high cytosolic ratios. They were far higher, even under low-intensity illumination, than dark ratios. Since cytosolic NADH levels are known to increase much less in the light than cytosolic dihydroxyacetone phosphate levels, the large increase in the ratio of didydroxyacetone phosphate to phosphogly cerate must considerably increase cytosolic phosphorylation potentials even at very low light intensities. It is proposed that this increase is communicated to the mitochondrial adenylate system, and inhibits dark respiratory activity, giving rise to the Kok effect. The extent of stroma alkalization, the efficiency of metabolite shuttles across the chloroplast envelope, and rates of cytosolic ATP consumption are proposed to be factors determining whether and to what extent the Kok effect can be observed. Light activation of chloroplast enzymes was slow at low and fast at high light intensities. This contrasts to low NADP levels at low and usually higher levels at high light intensities. Maximum enzyme activation was observed far below light saturation of photosynthesis, and light activation of enzymes was often less pronounced at very high than at intermediate light intensities.     

Response of mitochondrial ATPase activity to uncouplers in isolated organelles and whole cells of Zajdela hepatoma

ATPase activity of coupled Zajdela hepatoma mitochondria was rendered uncoupler-sensitive by decreasing free fatty acids content in mitochondria or by preincubation of mitochondria with ATP prior to the addition of an uncoupler. The latter treatment resulted in an accelerated transport of ATP into the organelles. The effect of carbonylcyanide-m-chlorophenylhydrazone and oligomycin on the decrease of the ATP content in whole Zajdela hepatoma cells indicated that the hepatoma mitochondrial ATPase is stimulated by uncouplers $\text{in}\text{vivo}$. The conclusion is that the uncoupler-insensitive ATPase activity of coupled Zajdela hepatoma mitochondria is exhibited only by isolated organelles and results from a reduced $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ translocase activity.     

Effect of the oral hypoglycemic agent 2-tetradecylglycidic acid on fatty acid oxidation in suckling rats in vivo and in perfused liver

The hypoglycemic agent, 2-tetradecylglycidic acid (TDGA), administered in vivo lowered the concentration of plasma glucose and ketone bodies but raised the concentration of liver and plasma triglycerides in 10-day-old suckling rats. Phospholipid and cholesterol content of the plasma and liver were unaffected by drug treatment. TDGA inhibited the in vivo oxidation of [1-¹⁴C]palmitate but not that of [1-¹⁴C]decanoate. In suckling rat liver perfusion, TDGA totally inhibited ketone body formation from palmitate and depressed ketone body production from decanoate by 20%. Liver ATP and ADP content in the presence of TDGA decreased although this was probably a reflection of the increased triglyceride content of the liver since the $\text{ATP}\text{ADP}$ was the same as control livers. The results are discussed in relation to the diet and to the inhibition of carnitine acyl transferase in suckling rats.