不同细菌来源的3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶Ⅲ生物学特性分析

3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶Ⅲ(FabH)是催化细菌脂肪酸合成的起始反应.研究表明,革兰氏阳性细菌FabH对支链脂酰-CoA前体的选择性是其合成支链脂肪酸的关键.但部分革兰氏阴性细菌也产生一定量的支链脂肪酸,其合成机制还不清楚.为此,本研究选取了革兰氏阳性细菌枯草芽孢杆菌BsfabH1和BsfabH2、金黄色葡萄球菌SafabH、天蓝色链霉菌ScofabH、革兰氏阴性细菌茄科雷尔氏菌RsfabH、大肠杆菌EcfabH,以及产支链脂肪酸的水稻黄单胞菌XoofabH,共7种fabH同源基因进行生物学特性分析.异体遗传互补茄科雷尔氏菌fabH突变株RsmH,表明这7个基因编码蛋白都具有3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶Ⅲ活性.脂肪酸组成分析显示,4个革兰氏阳性菌fabH和XoofabH互补株类似,均能产生支链脂肪酸,而EcfabH和RsfabH互补株不产生支链脂肪酸,说明XooFabH不同于EcFabH,参与支链脂肪酸合成.体外酶学分析表明,XooFabH与4种革兰氏阳性菌FabH类似,对支链脂酰-CoA有较高的选择,但EcFabH和RsFabH对支链前体活性低.与革兰氏阳性细菌FabH不同,XooFabH对中短链长(C4~C10)脂酰-CoA也具有较高的活性.综合以上结果,不同细菌来源FabH的生物学特性差异明显,FabH能利用支链前体是细菌合成支链脂肪酸的关键因素.     

茄科雷尔氏菌脂酰CoA脱饱和酶和环丙烷脂肪酸合成酶的鉴定

茄科雷尔氏菌(Ralstonia solanacearum)是一种危害严重的土传植物致病菌,其宿主范围广泛,在世界各地严重影响重要经济作物的生产.研究茄科雷尔氏菌的生理特性,探索其致病机理,有利于研发防治青枯病的技术与方法.脂肪酸是细菌细胞重要的组成物质,但是茄科雷尔氏菌脂肪酸合成的机制尚不清晰.本文以茄科雷尔氏菌GMI1000为材料,鉴定了该菌的脂酰Co A脱饱和酶和环丙烷脂肪酸合成酶,并分析了这两种酶在不饱和脂肪酸和环丙烷脂肪酸合成中的作用.结果显示,茄科雷尔氏菌RSc2450编码脂酰Co A脱饱和酶,参与其不饱和脂肪酸合成,但是该菌还存在其他不饱和脂肪酸合成途径.同时发现在茄科雷尔氏菌编码两个可能的环丙烷脂肪酸合成酶蛋白质中,仅有Cfa1(RSc0776)参与了该菌环丙烷脂肪酸的合成,并在低p H和高渗透压的耐受中起作用.该研究结果为深入研究茄科雷尔氏菌脂肪酸合成代谢特点及致病机理奠定了基础.     

哈氏弧菌脂酰-ACP合成酶的体外功能

【目的】系统鉴定哈氏弧菌脂酰-ACP合成酶(Acyl-ACP synthetase,Aas S)以不同链长游离脂肪酸和非脂肪链羧酸作为底物的体外催化反应。【方法】利用非变性蛋白质凝胶电泳和紫外分光光度计法从定性和定量两个方面分析了Aas S的体外催化功能与活性。【结果】Aas S能够催化不同链长直链的自由脂肪酸合成脂酰-ACP,其中以C6–C12作为底物时活性最高;以羟基脂肪酸作为底物的情况下,Aas S催化C8–C14的羟基脂肪酸有较高的活性。非脂肪链羧酸类作为底物的反应中,20种蛋白质氨基酸、苯甲酸和水杨酸均可以作为Aas S的底物,合成相应的脂酰-ACP。【结论】本研究系统地证明了哈氏弧菌脂酰-ACP合成酶(Aas S)对不同底物的不同催化活性,为生物体内氨基酸代谢和菌黄素合成代谢的研究提供了可行性的分析依据。     

天蓝色链霉菌中长链3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶的功能

【背景】链霉菌属于放线菌科,在土壤环境中广泛分布。链霉菌具有复杂的形态分化和多样性的次生代谢网络,能产生大量具有生物活性的次级代谢产物,被广泛深入研究。【目的】天蓝色链霉菌是链霉菌的模式菌株,其脂肪酸合成代谢与次级代谢联系紧密,但目前脂肪酸合成代谢途径还不清楚,其长链3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶还未见报道。【方法】利用大肠杆菌FabF序列进行同源比对,发现天蓝色链霉菌A3(2)的基因组中,SCO2390(ScoFabF1)、SCO1266(ScoFabF2)、SCO0548(ScoFabF3)和SCO5886 (ScoRedR)具有较高的相似性,并具有保守的Cys-His-His催化活性中心,可能具有长链3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶活性。采用PCR扩增方法分别获得以上基因,连入表达载体pBAD24M后分别互补大肠杆菌fabB(ts)突变株和fabB(ts)fabF双突变株,并检测转化子的生长情况。以上基因与pET-28b连接后,在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中表达,并利用Ni-NTA纯化获得蛋白,体外测定其催化活性。将以上基因分别互补大肠杆菌fabF突变株后,GC-MS测定互补株的脂肪酸组成。【结果】4个同源基因中,只有ScofabF1能恢复fabB(ts)fabF双突变株42°C时在添加油酸条件下的生长,其他3个基因均不能恢复生长。而这4个基因都不能恢复fabB(ts)突变株42°C时生长。体外活性测定ScoFabF1具有长链3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶活性,其他3个蛋白都不具有该活性。仅ScofabF1能显著提高大肠杆菌fabF突变株的顺-11-十八碳烯酸(C18:1)比例,其他3个基因都不具有该功能。【结论】天蓝色链霉菌中ScofabF1编码长链3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶II,在脂肪酸利用过程中发挥重要作用。天蓝色链霉菌中没有发现编码长链3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶I的基因,其可能通过其他途径合成少量的不饱和脂肪酸。以上研究结果为进一步研究天蓝色链霉菌中脂肪酸合成机制奠定了基础。     

五个3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶同源蛋白的功能鉴定

大肠杆菌的FabB和FabF均具有长链3-酮基脂酰ACP合成酶活性.除参与长链饱和脂酰链的延伸外,FabB还是合成不饱和脂肪酸的关键酶之一,参与不饱和脂酰ACP的从头合成,最终生成顺-9-十六烯脂酰ACP.而FabF只能将顺-9-十六烯脂酰ACP延伸为顺-11-十八烯脂酰ACP,不参与不饱和脂酰ACP的从头合成.有研究表明,粪肠球菌、乳酸乳球菌、丙酮丁醇梭菌和茄科雷尔氏菌等细菌的FabF同源蛋白,具有类似大肠杆菌FabB和FabF的双功能.为证实该现象是否普遍存在,本研究选取了枯草芽孢杆菌BsfabF、中华苜蓿根瘤菌SmfabF、霍乱弧菌VcfabF、铜绿假单胞菌PafabF1和PafabF2 5个同源基因进行功能鉴定,体外酶学分析表明,5个FabF同源蛋白均具有长链3-酮基脂酰ACP合成酶活性,异体互补大肠杆菌CL28的脂肪酸组分分析显示,SmfabF、VcfabF、PafabF1和PafabF2具有3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶Ⅱ(FabF)活性,遗传互补大肠杆菌温度敏感突变株CY242和CY244的研究显示,仅有PafabF2编码的蛋白拥有3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶Ⅰ(FabB)活性,能互补大肠杆菌fabB的突变.这表明不是所有的FabF同源蛋白均具有3-酮脂酰ACP合成酶Ⅰ和Ⅱ的双重活性.     

丛枝菌根真菌响应桉树茄科雷尔氏菌侵染进程基因的筛选与鉴定

【背景】桉树(Eucalyptus)青枯病危害严重,丛枝菌根真菌(arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi,AMF)与桉树共生影响桉树对青枯病的抗性,而AMF响应桉树青枯菌侵染的机制仍不清楚。【目的】探索AMF响应桉树茄科雷尔氏菌(Ralstonia solanacearum)的侵染机制。【方法】以非菌根化和异形根孢囊霉(Rhizophagus irregularis)菌根化巨桉(Eucalyptus grandis)分别受茄科雷尔氏菌侵染0、24、48和96 h接种后(hour post-inoculated, hpi)的根系组织为研究对象,基于转录组测序筛选和鉴定菌根化巨桉根系中异形根孢囊霉响应茄科雷尔氏菌侵染的基因信息。【结果】与对应非菌根化桉树受茄科雷尔氏菌侵染的时间点相比,菌根化桉树中异形根孢囊霉响应青枯菌侵染显著差异表达基因为3 382–5 989个,随青枯侵染时间进程的增加,异形根孢囊霉特异性响应茄科雷尔氏菌侵染差异表达基因数量逐渐增多。茄科雷尔氏菌侵染24 hpi时,异形根孢囊霉显著富集共生体生长、孢子形成和凋亡信号通路、铁载体等相关基因;茄科雷尔氏菌侵...     

青枯雷尔氏菌胞外多糖合成缺失突变株构建及其生物学特性

【目的】由青枯雷尔氏菌(Ralstonia solanacearum)引起的植物青枯病是一种毁灭性土传病害。胞外多糖(extracellular polysaccharides,EPS)是青枯雷尔氏菌关键的致病因子之一。通过构建胞外多糖缺失突变株,研究胞外多糖在青枯病致病中的作用。【方法】从青枯雷尔氏菌FJAT-91的基因组中克隆出胞外多糖合成结构基因epsD同源臂,克隆至自杀性质粒p K18mobsacB,再将庆大霉素抗性基因(Gm)插入同源臂中间,获得重组质粒p K18-epsD。将重组质粒转化至青枯雷尔氏菌FJAT-91感受态细胞中,通过同源重组敲除epsD基因,获得EPS合成缺失的突变株FJAT-91Δeps 。研究突变株与野生菌株在菌落形态、胞外多糖合成、运动能力、定殖能力的差异性。【结果】突变菌株FJAT-91ΔepsD与出发菌株FJAT-91相比:胞外多糖产量显著减少,生长较慢;泳动能力(swimming motility)和群集运动能力(swarming motility)显著降低;在番茄苗根部和茎部的定殖能力显著降低;弱化指数(AI)为0.905,鉴定为无致病力菌株。【结论】胞外多糖在青枯雷尔氏菌的致病中起着关键的作用,本课题研究成果为开发植物疫苗提供了优良的材料与研究基础。     

野油菜黄单胞菌中LipB-LipA是唯一的硫辛酰化途径

【目的】硫辛酸是细胞内重要的辅因子,参与多种基础代谢过程。野油菜黄单胞菌(Xcc)是十字花科植物黑腐病的病原菌,在全球范围内引起植物病害,引起重大经济损失。为此研究Xcc中硫辛酸的合成途径,为防治黑腐病提供新思路。【方法】利用大肠杆菌硫辛酸合成关键酶LipA和LipB序列,同源比对发现Xcc基因组中XC_0713 (XccLipA)和XC_0712 (XccLipB)具有较高的同源性。采用PCR方法分别扩增XccLipA和XccLipB基因,并连入表达载体pBAD24M后分别互补大肠杆菌突变株,并检测转化子生长表型。利用同源重组方法,获得替换突变株,分析其生长性状,并利用剪叶法检测替换突变株对寄主植物甘蓝的致病力。【结果】XcclipA和XcclipB能分别恢复大肠杆菌lipA和lipB突变株在基础培养上生长。XcclipA和XcclipB都是菌体生长的必需基因,不能直接被敲除。但导入pSRK-EclplA后,成功分别获得XcclipA和XcclipB敲除突变株。两种EclplA替换后的敲除突变株在基础培养上都不能生长,添加硫辛酸后能恢复生长表型。在丰富培养基上,XcclipB敲除突变株能正常生长,而XcclipA敲除突变株不能生长,添加硫辛酸后生长也能恢复。分别测定不同培养条件下生长曲线,也得到同样的结果。寄主植物侵染结果显示,与野生菌相比,XcclipA敲除突变株致病性几乎丧失,而XcclipB敲除突变株的致病性与野生菌无显著性差异。【结论】Xcc中lipA编码硫辛酸合成酶,lipB编码辛酰转移酶,两者都是必需基因。Xcc中LipB-LipA途径是唯一的硫辛酰化途径,而没有外源性的硫辛酸途径。lipA敲除后显著影响Xcc的致病性,可作为抗菌药物筛选的靶点。     

应用基因敲除快速构建大肠杆菌突变体改造脂肪酸代谢途径

【目的】基因敲除技术是研究基因功能的重要手段。我们试图建立一种快速、高效的大肠杆菌基因敲除方法。【方法】利用大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)BW25113单基因缺失体Keio文库,将经典的Red同源重组技术与P1噬菌体转导技术相结合,对E.coli MG1655脂肪酸代谢基因进行快速敲除。【结果】获得了大肠杆菌β-氧化途径的缺失菌株△fadD、△fadE和△fadD-△fadE;脂肪酸合成途径缺失菌株△fabH、△fabF和△fabH-△fabF。敲除fadD和fadE对生长情况没有影响;敲除fabH后,生长速度明显减慢;敲除fabF对生长几乎没有影响。FadD、FadE及双敲缺失体的脂肪酸含量18.2 mg/L、20.0mg/L和19.2 mg/L,略高于野生型17.5 mg/L;FabH、FabF及双敲缺失体的含量分别为12.6 mg/L、15.2 mg/L和11.2 mg/L,明显低于野生型。【结论】在单基因突变体文库基础上,利用P1噬菌体转导、Red同源重组和抗性基因消除进行基因敲除,简化了构建大肠杆菌单基因和多重突变体的方法。     

野油菜黄单胞菌中烯脂酰ACP还原酶的功能鉴定

烯脂酰ACP还原酶是细菌脂肪酸合成的关键酶之一.本研究通过生物信息学分析发现,野油菜黄单胞菌Xanthomonas campestris(Xcc)8004基因组中XC_0119(Xccfab V)注释为反-2-烯脂酰Co A还原酶基因.但其编码产物与铜绿假单胞菌的烯脂酰ACP还原酶Fab V具有较高的同源性,并含有相同的催化活性中心Tyr-(Xaa)8-Lys序列.用携带Xccfab V的质粒载体互补大肠杆菌fab I温度敏感突变株JP1111,转化子能在42℃生长,表明Xccfab V能遗传互补大肠杆菌fab I突变.体外重建脂肪酸合成反应表明,Xcc Fab V能催化不同链长的烯脂酰ACP还原为脂酰ACP,且催化活性不受三氯森抑制.遗传学研究表明,Xccfab V是必需基因,不能获得Xccfab V基因敲除突变株.将携带大肠杆菌fab I的外源质粒导入野生菌后,可敲除染色体上的fab V基因,获得的替换突变株生长特性和脂肪酸组成未发生显著变化,但替换突变株对三氯森敏感.上述结果证实,野油菜黄单胞菌fab V是必需基因,编码烯脂酰ACP还原酶,参与脂肪酸从头合成反应,且Fab V是Xcc对三氯森耐受的根本原因.     

Functional role of fatty acyl-coenzyme A synthetase in the transmembrane movement and activation of exogenous long-chain fatty acids. Amino acid residues within the ATP/AMP signature motif of Escherichia coli FadD are required for enzyme activity and fatty acid transport

Fatty acyl-CoA synthetase (FACS, fatty acid:CoA ligase, AMP forming; EC ) plays a central role in intermediary metabolism by catalyzing the formation of fatty acyl-CoA. In Escherichia coli this enzyme, encoded by the fadD gene, is required for the coupled import and activation of exogenous long-chain fatty acids. The E. coli FACS (FadD) contains two sequence elements, which comprise the ATP/AMP signature motif ((213)YTGGTTGVAKGA(224) and (356)GYGLTE(361)) placing it in the superfamily of adenylate-forming enzymes. A series of site-directed mutations were generated in the fadD gene within the ATP/AMP signature motif site to evaluate the role of this conserved region to enzyme function and to fatty acid transport. This approach revealed two major classes of fadD mutants with depressed enzyme activity: 1) those with 25-45% wild type activity (fadD(G216A), fadD(T217A), fadD(G219A), and fadD(K222A)) and 2) those with 10% or less wild-type activity (fadD(Y213A), fadD(T214A), and fadD(E361A)). Using anti-FadD sera, Western blots demonstrated the different mutant forms of FadD that were present and had localization patterns equivalent to the wild type. The defect in the first class was attributed to a reduced catalytic efficiency although several mutant forms also had a reduced affinity for ATP. The mutations resulting in these biochemical phenotypes reduced or essentially eliminated the transport of exogenous long-chain fatty acids. These data support the hypothesis that the FACS FadD functions in the vectorial movement of exogenous fatty acids across the plasma membrane by acting as a metabolic trap, which results in the formation of acyl-CoA esters.     

Rat long chain acyl-CoA synthetase 5, but not 1, 2, 3, or 4, complements Escherichia coli fadD

Long chain fatty acids are converted to acyl-CoAs by acyl-CoA synthetase (fatty acid CoA ligase: AMP forming, E.C. 6.2.1.3; ACS). Escherichia coli has a single ACS, FadD, that is essential for growth when fatty acids are the sole carbon and energy source. Rodents have five ACS isoforms that differ in substrate specificity, tissue expression, and subcellular localization and are believed to channel fatty acids toward distinct metabolic pathways. We expressed rat ACS isoforms 1-5 in an E. coli strain that lacked FadD. All rat ACS isoforms were expressed in E. coli fadD or fadDfadR and had ACS specific activities that were 1.6-20-fold higher than the wild type control strain expressing FadD. In the fadD background, the rat ACS isoforms 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 oxidized [(14)C]oleate at 5 to 25% of the wild type levels, but only ACS5 restored growth on oleate as the sole carbon source. To ensure that enzymes of beta-oxidation were not limiting, assays of ACS activity, beta-oxidation, fatty acid transport, and phospholipid synthesis were also examined in a fadD fadR strain, thereby eliminating FadR repression of the transporter FadL and the enzymes of beta-oxidation. In this strain, fatty acid transport levels were low but detectable for ACS1, 2, 3, and 4 and were nearly 50% of wild type levels for ACS5. Despite increases in beta-oxidation, only ACS5 transformants were able to grow on oleate. These studies show that although ACS isoforms 1-4 variably supported moderate transport activity, beta-oxidation, and phospholipid synthesis and although their in vitro specific activities were greater than that of chromosomally encoded FadD, they were unable to substitute functionally for FadD regarding growth. Thus, membrane composition and protein-protein interactions may be critical in reconstituting bacterial ACS function.     

FadD is required for utilization of endogenous fatty acids released from membrane lipids

FadD is an acyl coenzyme A (CoA) synthetase responsible for the activation of exogenous long-chain fatty acids (LCFA) into acyl-CoAs. Mutation of fadD in the symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti promotes swarming motility and leads to defects in nodulation of alfalfa plants. In this study, we found that S. meliloti fadD mutants accumulated a mixture of free fatty acids during the stationary phase of growth. The composition of the free fatty acid pool and the results obtained after specific labeling of esterified fatty acids with a Δ5-desaturase (Δ5-Des) were in agreement with membrane phospholipids being the origin of the released fatty acids. Escherichia coli fadD mutants also accumulated free fatty acids released from membrane lipids in the stationary phase. This phenomenon did not occur in a mutant of E. coli with a deficient FadL fatty acid transporter, suggesting that the accumulation of fatty acids in fadD mutants occurs inside the cell. Our results indicate that, besides the activation of exogenous LCFA, in bacteria FadD plays a major role in the activation of endogenous fatty acids released from membrane lipids. Furthermore, expression analysis performed with S. meliloti revealed that a functional FadD is required for the upregulation of genes involved in fatty acid degradation and suggested that in the wild-type strain, the fatty acids released from membrane lipids are degraded by β-oxidation in the stationary phase of growth.     

Effect of acetate formation pathway and long chain fatty acid CoA-ligase on the free fatty acid production in E. coli expressing acy-ACP thioesterase from Ricinus communis

Microbial biosynthesis of fatty acid like chemicals from renewable carbon sources has attracted significant attention in recent years. Free fatty acids can be used as precursors for the production of fuels or chemicals. Wild type E. coli strains produce fatty acids mainly for the biosynthesis of lipids and cell membranes and do not accumulate free fatty acids as intermediates in lipid biosynthesis. However, free fatty acids can be produced by breaking the fatty acid elongation through the overexpression of an acyl-ACP thioesterase. Since acetyl-CoA might be an important factor for fatty acid synthesis (acetate formation pathways are the main competitive pathways in consuming acetyl-CoA or pyruvate, a precursor of acetyl-CoA), and the long chain fatty acid CoA-ligase (FadD) plays a pivotal role in the transport and activation of exogenous fatty acids prior to their subsequent degradation, we examined the composition and the secretion of the free fatty acids in four different strains including the wild type MG1655, a mutant strain with inactivation of the fatty acid beta-oxidation pathway (fadD mutant (ML103)), and mutant strains with inactivation of the two major acetate production pathways (an ack-pta (acetate kinase/phosphotransacetylase), poxB (pyruvate oxidase) double mutant (ML112)) and a fadD, ack-pta, poxB triple mutant (ML115). The engineered E. coli cells expressing acyl-ACP thioesterase with glucose yield is higher than 40% of theoretical yield. Compared to MG1655(pXZ18) and ML103(pXZ18), acetate forming pathway deletion strains such as ML112(pXZ18) and ML115(pXZ18) produced similar quantity of total free fatty acids, which indicated that acetyl-CoA availability does not appear to be limiting factor for fatty acid production in these strains. However, these strains did show significant differences in the composition of free fatty acids. Different from MG1655(pXZ18) and ML103(pXZ18), acetate formation pathway deletion strains such as ML112(pXZ18) and ML115(pXZ18) produced similar level of C14, C16:1 and C16 free fatty acids, and the free fatty acid compositions of both strains did not change significantly with time. In addition, the strains bearing the fadD mutation showed significant differences in the quantities of free fatty acids found in the broth. Finally, we examined two potential screening methods for selecting and isolating high free fatty acids producing cells.     

A fadD mutant of Sinorhizobium meliloti shows multicellular swarming migration and is impaired in nodulation efficiency on alfalfa roots

Swarming is a form of bacterial translocation that involves cell differentiation and is characterized by a rapid and co-ordinated population migration across solid surfaces. We have isolated a Tn5 mutant of Sinorhizobium meliloti GR4 showing conditional swarming. Swarm cells from the mutant strain QS77 induced on semi-solid minimal medium in response to different signals are hyperflagellated and about twice as long as wild-type cells. Genetic and physiological characterization of the mutant strain indicates that QS77 is altered in a gene encoding a homologue of the FadD protein (long-chain fatty acyl-CoA ligase) of several microorganisms. Interestingly and similar to a less virulent Xanthomonas campestris fadD(rpfB) mutant, QS77 is impaired in establishing an association with its host plant. In trans expression of multicopy fadD restored growth on oleate, control of motility and the symbiotic phenotype of QS77, as well as acyl-CoA synthetase activity of an Escherichia coli fadD mutant. The S. meliloti QS77 strain shows a reduction in nod gene expression as well as a differential regulation of motility genes in response to environmental conditions. These data suggest that, in S. meliloti, fatty acid derivatives may act as intracellular signals controlling motility and symbiotic performance through gene expression.     

A stationary-phase acyl-coenzyme A synthetase of Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) is necessary for the normal onset of antibiotic production

The fadD1 and macs1 genes of Streptomyces coelicolor are part of a two-gene operon. Both genes encode putative acyl coenzyme A synthetases (ACSs). The amino acid sequence of FadD1 has high homology with those of several ACSs, while MACS1 has the closest homology with medium-chain ACSs, broadly known as SA proteins. Like FadD of Escherichia coli, FadD1 also has a broad substrate specificity, although saturated long-chain fatty acids appears to be the preferred substrate. fadD1 is a growth-phase-regulated gene, and its mRNA is detected only during the stationary phase of growth. Interestingly, a mutation in fadD1 alters the levels of another ACS or ACSs, both at the stationary phase and at the exponential phase of growth, at least when glucose is used as a main carbon source. The mutant also shows a severe deficiency in antibiotic production, and at least for Act biosynthesis, this deficiency seems to be related to delayed expression of the Act biosynthetic genes. Antibiotic production is restored by the introduction of a wt fadD1 allele into the cell, demonstrating a strict link between ACS activity and the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. The results of this study indicate that the ACSs may be useful targets for the design of rational approaches to improving antibiotic production.     

Incorporation of acyl moieties of phospholipids into murein lipoprotein in intact cells of Escherichia coli by phospholipid vesicle fusion.

The biosynthesis of the acyl moieties in murein lipoprotein was studied by fusion of [3H]palmitate-labeled phospholipid vesicles with intact cells of an fadD mutant of Escherichia coli. A linear increase in the incorporation of [3H]palmitate radioactivity into both the ester- and amide-linked fatty acids in lipoprotein was observed during a 3-h chase after the fusion. Addition of chloramphenicol completely prevented the incorporation of [3H]palmitate from phospholipids to lipoprotein. These results strongly support our hypothesis that the acyl moieties in phospholipids are the precursors for the fatty acids in murein lipoprotein of E. coli. Among the major glycerophosphatides in E. coli, no specificity was observed regarding the efficacy of the donor.