红瘰疣螈玉龙雪山种群的两性异形

分别测量于2018年6—8月采自云南丽江玉龙雪山的32只(17♂,15♀)红瘰疣螈Tylototriton shanjing成体的全长、头体长、头长等13项形态特征指标,并检验该物种的两性异形。结果表明:雌性平均全长为160.72 mm±3.02 mm(n=15),雄性平均全长为138.58 mm±2.57 mm(n=17),雌性与雄性平均全长比为1.160,两性异形指数为0.138,属雌性大于雄性的两栖类;全长在两性间的差异有统计学意义;除了雌性的头宽、尾宽、尾高和腋至胯距外,其他形态特征与全长均有显著或极显著相关性;以全长为协变量的协方差分析结果显示,红瘰疣螈的头体长、头长、吻长、尾长和前肢长在两性间的差异有统计学意义;雌性的尾长和前肢长随全长的生长速率大于雄性,而头体长、头长和吻长随全长的生长速率小于雄性。生育力选择假说能解释红瘰疣螈玉龙雪山种群的两性异形现象。     

旱地沙蜥的两性异形

旱地沙蜥Phrynocephalus helioscopus是一种在我国仅分布于新疆北部的蜥蜴。通过测量和比较采自新疆塔城地区旱地沙蜥的体长、口宽、头宽、头高、头长、眼间距、腹部长、尾长等8个形态特征研究旱地沙蜥的两性异形。本研究共采集到旱地沙蜥51只,其中,雌性23只,雄性28只。雌雄平均体长分别为48.03 mm和47.69 mm。结果表明旱地沙蜥两性体长的差异无统计学意义,其体长与口宽、头宽、头高、头长、眼间距、腹部长和尾长7个形态特征均显著正相关。在控制体长的基础上比较得出,雌雄个体在头高、头长、腹部长和尾长上的差异有统计学意义,口宽、头宽、眼间距的差异无统计学意义。其中,雄性的头高、头长和尾长均大于雌性,雌性的腹部长则明显大于雄性。旱地沙蜥的腹部长呈现明显的异形生长,雌性的生长速率明显大于雄性。旱地沙蜥的两性异形可能是性选择压力与生育力选择压力共同作用的结果,雄性头部更大、尾部更长,在性选择中具有优势;雌性腹部更长,能够繁育更多的后代。     

饰纹姬蛙的两性异形及雌性繁殖能力

用采自云南省西双版纳傣族自治州勐腊县的53只(28♂♂,25♀♀)成体饰纹姬蛙(Microhyla fissipes),测量全部个体的体长、头长、头宽、体重等16项形态特征和雌体怀卵量数据,通过独立样本t检验和协方差检验该物种所有形态特征的两性差异,进而采用线性回归方法分析雌雄成体局部形态特征与体长的相关性,以及雌性成体怀卵量与局部形态特征的相关性。结果表明,饰纹姬蛙平均体长雌性为(25.08±0.40)mm,雄性为(24.78±0.31)mm,体长和体重在雌雄两性间差异不显著(P 0.05),两性个体大小基本同形。该蛙的所有局部形态特征与体长均存在极显著正相关性(P 0.01);雌雄两性间只在头宽和前臂及手长这两个形态特征上存在显著差异(P 0.05),且随体长的增大其生长速率也存在显著差异。雌性成体的怀卵量与体长、体重、眼间距、前臂宽、胫宽和跗足长均存在显著正相关性(P 0.05),且与体重存在极显著正相关性(P 0.01)。分析认为,饰纹姬蛙成体两性异形主要表现在头宽和前臂及手长,与生存竞争中对食物的获取能力及雄性争夺交配权的成功率有关;而雌性个体可以通过增加体长和体重,相应地增加腹腔容量来提高繁殖输出,该结果符合生育力选择假说。     

海陆蛙的两性异形和雌性繁殖特征

用采自海南东寨港红树林保护区的58只(35 ♀♀,23 ♂♂)成体海陆蛙(Fejervarya cancrivora),通过测量头体长、体重、头长、头宽、吻长等11个形态特征指标和雌体卵巢质量(窝卵重),研究该种形态特征的两性异形和雌性繁殖特征,并检验雌性成体大小(头体长和体重)与其繁殖的相关性.雌雄两性个体的最小头体长分别为44.9 mm和45.2 mm.除吻长和眼间距外,其余局部形态特征与头体长皆呈正相关性.头体长在雌雄两性之间差异显著,雌性显著大于雄性;而体重、头长、头宽等局部形态均无两性差异.海陆蛙雌体的窝卵重与头体长和体重之间皆成正相关关系,表明雌性可能是通过增大体型从而增加繁殖输出,而向较大体型发展.     

蓝尾石龙子的生长、两性异形及雌性繁殖

报道蓝尾石龙子（Eumeces elegans)的生长、两性异形和雌性繁殖,性成熟个体体色的两性差异显著,成年雄性体长、头长和头宽显著大于成年雌性,幼体体长生长率无显著的两性差异。成年雄体体长生长率显著大于成年雌体,因此,个体大小的两性异形是性成熟后发生的,体长小于50mm的幼体,头长和头宽无性差异;当体长大于50mm。雄性头长和头宽随体长的生长率显著大于雌性。并导致头部大小的两性异形,并随个体发育变得越来越显著,蓝尾石龙子产卵雌体的最小体长为69.3mm,大于此体长的雌体均年产单窝卵。窝卵数、窝卵重和平均卵重均与雌体体长呈正相关,平均值分别为6.4、2.783和0.554g。窝卵数与雌体产后状态无关,蓝尾石龙子雌体主要通过增加窝卵数和卵大小来增加繁殖输出。     

东北林蛙的两性异形和抱对个体的形态相关性

2012年4月,在吉林省长白山地区,对正在抱对的30对东北林蛙(Rana dybowskii)成体的体长、头长、头宽、前肢长和后肢长进行测量,使用统计学的方法分析抱对个体形态特征的两性异形及配偶间形态特征的相关性.结果表明,两性的所有局部形态特征均与其体长呈显著正相关,其中,前肢长和后肢长随体长的增长速率在两性间无显著差异,而头长和头宽随体长的增长速率存在显著差异.雌性成体显著大于雄性成体;特定体长下雄性的前肢显著大于雌性,其他局部特征没有显著的两性差异;雌性个体与抱对的雄性个体的后肢长呈显著正相关,其余形态特征两性间无相关性.因此,在东北林蛙的配偶选择中,雌性对雄性形态特征的选择与两性异形的形成无显著的相关性.     

康县隆肛蛙的两性异形

测量和比较了采自甘肃省康县的康县隆肛蛙Feirana kangxianensis标本共计90只(雌性48只,雄性42只)。结果表明,康县隆肛蛙成体的头体长、头长、头宽、吻长、鼻间距、眼间距、眼径、鼓膜长、前臂及手长、后肢全长、手长、足长的形态特征在两性间的差异有统计学意义。以头体长为协变量的协方差分析显示,康县隆肛蛙两性的差异均有统计学意义,异形指数达到0.08,雌性与雄性的平均头体长比值为1.091。对所有测量的形态特征与头体长进行一元线性回归分析表明,雌性康县隆肛蛙局部形态特征的生长速度明显大于雄性,其中,吻长、眼间距、眼径、鼓膜长、前臂及手长、手长的两性差异最明显。生育力选择假设能解释康县隆肛蛙的两性异形现象。     

宁波滑蜥两性异形和雌性繁殖

蜥蜴的雌性繁殖特征对理解两性异形的进化原因起着重要作用。于2011年4月在安徽滁州采集宁波滑蜥(Scincella modesta),定量研究该种形态特征的两性异形和雌性繁殖特征,检验成体形态特征两性异形与雌性繁殖的相关性。研究共采集43条(17♀♀,26♂♂)宁波滑蜥,雄性和雌性个体的最大体长分别为47.4 mm和46.6 mm。雌雄两性在体长和头宽上没有差异,而在腹长和头长上差异显著,雄性有较大的头长,雌性有较大的腹长。宁波滑蜥年产单窝卵。窝卵数和窝卵重与雌体体长及腹长呈正相关,卵重与雌体体长无相关性。窝卵数及卵重的变异系数分别为0.20和0.12。卵长径与窝卵数呈负相关,而卵短径与窝卵数无关。雌体主要通过增加窝卵数来增加繁殖输出。这些结果表明,宁波滑蜥是雌雄个体大小同形的两性异形模式,性选择使得雄性有着较大的头长,以具有较高的交配成功率,生育力选择使得雌性有着较大的腹长,以具有较大的生育力和繁殖输出。     

泽陆蛙(Fejervarya limnocharis)两性异形的个体发育和雌体繁殖

2010年3月下旬-7月上旬于浙江富阳市农田采集680只泽陆蛙(Fejervarya limnocharis),研究了泽陆蛙成体和幼体的个体大小和局部形态特征的两性异形;通过解剖雌体获得窝卵数、测量抱对个体获得形态数据,研究了雌体大小与生育力关系以及抱对两性个体体形大小的相关性.结果表明:捕获个体中,雌性和雄性成体的最小体长分别为33mm和30 mm;雄性成体个体数显著超过雌性成体,两性幼体个体数无显著差异;两性成体头部大小、四肢长随体长呈同速增长,眼径和体重随体长呈异速增长,两性幼体所有被检形态特征均随体长呈同速增长;雌性成体平均体长显著大干雄性成体,去除体长差异的影响后发现,除眼径无显著的两性差异外,其余被检形态特征均为雌性大于雄性;幼体除雌性体重大于雄性外,其余被检形态特征均无两性差异;窝卵数与雌体大小(体长和体重)呈显著的正相关;两性抱对个体的体长无显著相关性;泽陆蛙雄性成体体形小于雌性成体的个体大小两性异形模式可能决定于驱使雄性向较大体形发展的进化驱动力相对较弱,雌性增大体形可增加繁殖输出,故向较大体形发展的进化驱动力相对较强;除体重外,其余被检形态特征的两性异形均形成于性成熟之后.     

丽纹攀蜥头体大小的两性异形和繁殖期的生长

测定了丽纹攀蜥的体长、头长、头宽、头高、尾长和体重等形态指标,以及通过44天的生长后体长、头长、头宽和头高的增长。表明成年两性个体体长无显著的两性异形,局部形态特征皆与体长呈正相关。协方差分析表明,雄性的头长、头宽、头高和尾长显著大于雌性个体,繁殖期雌性个体的体重显著大于雄性个体。丽纹攀蜥繁殖期雄性体长的增长显著大于雌性体长的增长,雌雄两性头长、头宽和头高的增长无显著的差异。     

Latitudinal variation and coevolutionary diversification of sexually dimorphic traits in the false blister beetle Oedemera sexualis

Sexual traits are subject to evolutionary forces that maximize reproductive benefits and minimize survival costs, both of which can depend on environmental conditions. Latitude explains substantial variation in environmental conditions. However, little is known about the relationship between sexual trait variation and latitude, although body size often correlates with latitude. We examined latitudinal variation in male and female sexual traits in 22 populations of the false blister beetle Oedemera sexualis in the Japanese Archipelago. Males possess massive hind legs that function as a female‐grasping apparatus, while females possess slender hind legs that are used to dislodge mounting males. Morphometric analyses revealed that male and female body size (elytron length), length and width of the hind femur and tibia, and allometric slopes of these four hind leg dimensions differed significantly among populations. Of these, three traits showed latitudinal variation, namely, male hind femur was stouter; female hind tibia was slenderer, and female body was smaller at lower latitudes than at higher latitudes. Hind leg sizes and shapes, as measured by principal component analysis of these four hind leg dimensions in each sex, covaried significantly between sexes, suggesting coevolutionary diversification in sexual traits. Covariation between sexes was weaker when variation in these traits with latitude was removed. These results suggest that coevolutionary diversification between male and female sexual traits is mediated by environmental conditions that vary with latitude.     

乐山棒花鱼形态特征的两性异形和雌性个体生育力

测定了乐山棒花鱼(Abbottina kiatingensis)繁殖期形态特征包括体长、头长、头宽、头高、吻长、眼后头长、眼径、眼间距、体高、尾柄长、尾柄高、尾鳍长、背鳍基前距、背鳍基长、腹鳍基前距、腹臀间距、体重和去内脏体重的两性异形和雌性个体生育力。繁殖期雄性个体的数量显著多于雌性个体,雌雄两性个体的体长差异不显著。特定体长的雌性个体的头长、头宽、头高、吻长、眼后头长、尾柄高、背鳍基前距、背鳍基长和去内脏体重显著小于雄性个体,其余指标不存在明显的差异。回归分析表明,乐山棒花鱼的怀卵数量与体长和体重回归关系显著,雌性通过个体大小(体长和体重)的增加来提高个体生育力。     

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS FROM THE EAST COAST OF FLORIDA

Skulls of 69 bottlenose dolphins (genus Tursiops ) from the Indian/Banana River on the east coast of Florida were examined for evidence of sexual dimorphism. The only sexual dimorphism shown by t -tests on 28 morphological and four meristic skull characters was that males have, on average, more teeth than females in all four arcades. Results of covariance analysis, employed to account for variation in size, indicate minor dimorphism in parietal width of the skull. Twenty body measurements of 29 Tursiops originating in the same area were also analysed for differences between males and females. Statistical results indicate the possibility of sexual dimorphism in the length from the snout to the umbilicus and in flipper width. No evidence was found for differences in overall skull or body length between the sexes.     

Reproduction and sexual dimorphism in the viviparous lizard Sceloporus palaciosi (Squamata: Phrynosomatidae) from the Trans‐Mexican Volcanic Belt,Mexico

In this study, sexual dimorphism, reproductive cycles, litter size and offspring size of a population of the little‐known species Sceloporus palaciosi in central Mexico were analysed. Significant male‐biased sexual size dimorphism was recorded in snout–vent length (SVL), head length, head width, forearm length and tibia length. Both sexes showed asynchronous reproductive cycles, and males reached sexual maturity at a smaller SVL (33 mm) than females (37 mm). Testes volumes were small from January to February, testicular recrudescence began from March to June, and decreased in July, but increased again in August and September, followed by a second decrease from October to December. In females, vitellogenesis began from May until ovulation in December. Embryonic development extended from November to March, and a small number of females carried embryos through July. Mean litter size was 4.0 and was positively correlated with female SVL. The length of the reproductive period in S. palaciosi recorded in this study is longer than that recorded for other populations in other parts of this species range. Further studies are needed to clarify reproductive cycles in the other isolated populations of S. palaciosi, and then extended to other species and chromosome races in the Sceloporus grammicus complex.     

Fluctuating asymmetry,body size and sexual selection in the dung fly Sepsis cynipsea — testing the good genes assumptions and predictions

In the dung fly Sepsis cynipsea large and more symmetric males have been shown to enjoy a mating advantage, but we still do not know which mechanism of sexual selection is responsible. Here we test several assumptions and predictions relating to the hypothesis that either trait is indicative of ‘good genes’. We tested for good genes by regressing fitness in good and bad environments (no and high larval competition, respectively) on the family mean for size or asymmetry as expressed in the good environment, separately for both sexes. Body size (hind tibia length or head width) was positively correlated with female fecundity, growth rate of both sexes and larval survivorship for males, but only in the good environment. The corresponding evidence for asymmetry is more equivocal. Mean standardised asymmetry was weakly associated with lower survivorship in the good environment, while growth rates and female fecundity were not. As predicted by sexual selection theory, fore tibia length showed greater asymmetry than other, presumably not sexually selected traits, and asymmetry in fore tibia length was greater for males than females. However, a negative correlation between trait size and asymmetry was only evident for male seta length but not for fore tibia length, fore femur length, or any composite measure of asymmetry. Most crucially, asymmetry was heritable for some female morphological traits (hind tibia length: h² = 0.15; fore femur length: h² = 0.16; mean of all measured traits: h² = 0.27), but not for any male trait. Also, asymmetry of the various traits measured was not correlated within males and only weakly so within females. The crucial assumption that asymmetry of sexually selected traits reflects overall, heritable developmental stability of an individual is thus only partly substantiated by our data. In contrast, large body size is heritable, associated with high fitness and consequently could be indicative of good genes. Fore leg asymmetry may influence male mating success by simply mechanically constraining his ability to hold on to the female.     

Sexual size dimorphism in Darevskia raddei (Sauria: Lacertidae) from northwestern Iran

We examined sexual size dimorphism of the rock-dwelling lizard Darevskia raddei (Boettger, 1892) with the help of 30 specimens that were provided from various sources. Eleven metric and seven meristic features were examined. Seven characters (gulars, length of basal tail, femoral pores, length of head, width of head, length of fore limb and length of hind limb) were identified as dimorphic between the two sexes. Some of these characters have important roles in copulation for males, especially the hind limb and the tail base. The number of femoral pores is important in the release of signal components because females release these components to attract males during the mating season. The length of the hind limb as locomotor performance plays an important role during mating, so that the male can grasp the female and adopt the correct position during copulation.     

Sexual differences in head form and diet in a population of Mexican lance‐headed rattlesnakes,Crotalus polystictus

Sexual dimorphism of phenotypic traits associated with resource use is common in animals, and may result from niche divergence between sexes. Snakes have become widely used in studies of the ecological basis of sexual dimorphism because they are gape‐limited predators and their head morphology is likely to be a direct indicator of the size and shape of prey consumed. We examined sexual dimorphism of body size and head morphology, as well as sexual differences in diet, in a population of Mexican lance‐headed rattlesnakes, Crotalus polystictus, from the State of México, Mexico. The maximum snout–vent length of males was greater than that of females by 21%. Males had relatively larger heads, and differed from females in head shape after removing the effects of head size. In addition, male rattlesnakes showed positive allometry in head shape: head width was amplified, whereas snout length was truncated with increased head size. By contrast, our data did not provide clear evidence of allometry in head shape of females. Adults of both males and females ate predominately mice and voles; however, males also consumed a greater proportion of larger mammalian species, and fewer small prey species. The differences in diet correspond with dimorphism in head morphology, and provide evidence of intersexual niche divergence in the study population. However, because the sexes overlapped greatly in diet, we hypothesize that diet and head dimorphisms in C. polystictus are likely related to different selection pressures in each sex arising from pre‐existing body size differences rather than from character displacement for reducing intersexual competition. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 106 , 633–640.     

棒花鱼形态特征的两性异形和雌性个体生育力

测定了棒花鱼(Abbottina rivularis)繁殖期形态特征包括体长、头长、头宽、头高、眼间距、鼻间距、背鳍基长、胸鳍长、胸鳍腹鳍间距、尾柄长、尾鳍长和体重的两性异形和雌性个体生育力。结果表明,雄性个体的数量显著多于雌性个体,雄性个体的体长显著大于雌性个体。特定体长的雌性个体的胸鳍腹鳍间距显著大于雄性个体,头长、头宽、头高、眼间距、鼻间距、背鳍基长、胸鳍长、尾柄长和尾鳍长显著小于雄性个体,雌雄两性体重不存在显著差异。棒花鱼的怀卵数量与体长和体重回归关系显著。偏相关分析显示,当控制第三者恒定时,怀卵数量与体长和体重呈正相关但不显著。棒花鱼存在个体大小和其他局部特征显著的两性异形,雌性个体主要通过腹腔容积的增加提高个体生育力。棒花鱼形态特征的两性异形是性选择和生育力选择共同作用的结果。     

海南变色树蜥个体发育中形态和食性的变化

研究变色树蜥（Calotes versicolor)头,尾大小和食性在个体发育过程中的变化,以及头,尾大小两性异性的个体发生,成体体长（SVL）无显著的两性差异,两性异形主要表现为雄性个体有较大的头部（头长和头宽）和尾部。头,尾大小的两性异形在初生幼体就已存在,并随个体发育的进行变得更加显著。不同年龄组两性个体头长以及雌体头宽随SVL呈同速增长;雄性头宽随SVL呈异速增长,表现为雄性头宽的增长速率在个体发育过程中逐渐增大。头,尾部的相对大小在个体发育过程中有显著的变化,初生幼体头部相对较大,尾部相对较小,这种形态特征是胚胎优先保证生态学意义更为显著的部分（如头部）生长的结果,有利于初生幼体的早期生存和生长,不同性别和年龄组的变色树蜥摄入食物的种类及各种食物在摄入食物中所的比例有一定程度的差别,因而食物生态位宽度和重叠度有一定程度的差别,然而没有直接的证据表明头部大小的两性异形能导致两性食物生态位的明显分离。     

Function‐related Drivers of Skull Morphometric Variation and Sexual Size Dimorphism in a Subterranean Rodent,Plateau Zokor (Eospalax baileyi)

Sexual dimorphism is prevalent in most living organisms. The difference in size between sexes of a given species is generally known as sexual size dimorphism (SSD). The magnitude of the SSD is determined by Rensch's rule where size dimorphism increases with increasing body size when the male is the larger sex and decreases with increasing average body size when the female is the larger sex. The unique underground environment that zokors (Eospalax baileyi) live under in the severe habitat of the Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau (QTP) could create SSD selection pressures that may or may not be supported by Rensch's rule, making this scientific question worthy of investigation. In this study, we investigated the individual variation between sexes in body size and SSD of plateau zokors using measurements of 19 morphological traits. We also investigated the evolutionary mechanisms underlying SSD in plateau zokors. Moreover, we applied Rensch's rule to all extant zokor species. Our results showed male‐biased SSD in plateau zokors: The body‐ and head‐related measurements were greater in males than in females. Linear regression analysis between body length, body weight, and carcass weight showed significant relationships with some traits such as skull length, lower incisor length, and tympanic bulla width, which might support our prediction that males have faster growth rates than females. Further, the SSD pattern corroborated the assumption of Rensch's rule in plateau zokors but not in the other zokor species. Our findings suggest that the natural underground habitat and behavioral differences between sexes can generate selection pressures on male traits and contribute to the evolution of SSD in plateau zokors.