禾谷镰孢菌β-微管蛋白基因克隆及其与多菌灵抗药性关系的分析

应用3对引物,从禾谷镰孢菌（Gibberella zeae）对多菌灵（MBC）的敏感菌株（MBCS）和田间及室内诱导抗药性菌株（MBCR）中扩增β微管蛋白基因。该基因全长1631bp,包含3个内含子,编码447aa,与其他常见植物病原丝状真菌β-微管蛋白基因的氨基酸同源性达95.12%～99.30%。MBCS和MBCR菌株核苷酸序列分析表明,MBCR菌株未发生任何位点的突变,说明G. zeae对MBC的抗药性机制并非像其他丝状真菌一样由β微管蛋白198位氨基酸突变所致。     

水稻恶苗病菌(Fusarium fujikuroi)β-微管蛋白基因克隆及与多菌灵抗药性关系

【目的】揭示水稻恶苗病菌(Fusarium fujikuroi)对多菌灵的抗药性与其β-微管蛋白基因的相关性。【方法】结合形态学和TEF-1α基因序列对分离菌株进行鉴定;根据近源种拟轮枝镰孢菌(Fusarium verticillioides)核基因组测序菌株7600的β-微管蛋白核苷酸序列设计引物,采用PCR方法克隆并比对分析了F.fujikuroi对多菌灵不同敏感性表型的5个菌株的β-微管蛋白基因全序列;利用实时定量技术(qRT-PCR)分析了β-微管蛋白基因在上述5个菌株中的表达特性。【结果】F.fujikuroi的β-微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列(GenBank登录号:JQ026022)全长1671 bp,包含4个内含子,编码447个氨基酸残基;2个敏感性菌株和3个抗药性菌株的β-微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列同源性100%;在无药剂处理下该基因在2个敏感性菌株中的表达水平显著高于3个抗药性菌株(p=0.05),且对同一菌株而言,药剂处理能够显著提高β-微管蛋白基因表达水平(p=0.05),但在相同药剂处理条件下,菌株间差异不显著。【结论】F.fujikuroi对多菌灵的抗药性机制与β-微管蛋白无关,有待进一步研究。     

禾谷镰孢菌α-微管蛋白基因克隆及其与多菌灵抗药性关系分析

根据禾谷镰孢菌参考菌株NRRL310 84 (PH 1)的α- 微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列设计 4对引物 ,采用PCR方法克隆并测序了禾谷镰孢菌 (Fusariumgraminearum)对多菌灵 (MBC)不同敏感性表型的 6个中国菌株的α 微管蛋白基因全序列。DNA序列对照表明中国的 3个敏感菌株和 3个抗药菌株的α- 微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列同源性没有差异 ,多菌灵抗药性与α- 微管蛋白无关。该基因全长 1718bp ,含有 6个内元 ,编码 4 4 9aa ;与NRRL310 84的α- 微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列同源性为 99% ,存在 5个差异核苷酸 ,与其所编码的氨基酸序列同源性为 99 78% ;与其他 6种真菌α- 微管蛋白基因所编码的氨基酸序列同源性为 37%～ 86 %。     

小麦赤霉病菌对多菌灵的抗药性与α2-微管蛋白序列无关析

[目的]研究小麦赤霉病菌对多菌灵的抗药性与α2-微管蛋白基因的相关性.[方法]比较对多菌灵不同敏感性水平菌株间在药剂作用下的形态学特征及其α2-微管蛋白基因异同.[结果]当敏感菌株和田间中抗菌株均在各自EC50和EC90浓度作用下,两者分生孢子芽管和初生菌丝均表现畸形,肿胀,分支增多.根据小麦赤霉病菌核基因组测序菌株NRRL31 084(PH-1)的α2-微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列设计4对引物,采用PCR方法克隆并测定了小麦赤霉病菌(Fusarium graminearum)对多菌灵(MBC)不同敏感性表型的8个中国菌株的α2-微管蛋白基因全序列.DNA序列比对结果表明中国的4个敏感菌株和4个抗药性菌株的α2-微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列同源性没有差异,多菌灵抗药性与α2-微管蛋白无关.该基因全长1712 bp,含有4个内元,编码453 aa;与NRRL31 084的α2-微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列同源性为99%,存在5个差异核苷酸,与其所编码的氨基酸序列同源性为100%;与其他9种真菌α2-微管蛋白基因所编码的氨基酸序列同源性为64%～89%.[结论]小麦赤霉病菌对多菌灵的抗药性与α2-微管蛋白序列无关.     

芒果炭疽病菌β-微管蛋白基因的克隆及其与多菌灵抗药性发生的关系

参照豆科合萌属 (Aeschynomene)作物炭疽病菌的tub1和tub2基因序列设计了 2对引物 ,分别从芒果 (Man gifera)炭疽病菌对多菌灵 (MBC)田间抗药性 (MBCR)和敏感 (MBCS)的菌株中扩增 β_微管蛋白基因。结果只有以tub2为参照设计的引物扩增到了特异片段。进一步对全基因进行了克隆和测序。该基因序列全长 1344bp ,编码4 4 7aa ,其核苷酸和氨基酸序列与豆科合萌属炭疽病菌的tub2基因高度同源。对芒果炭疽病菌抗、感菌株 β_微管蛋白氨基酸序列进行比较分析 ,发现第 181、2 37和 36 3位氨基酸发生了突变 ,而其它位置 (如第 198位或 2 0 0位 )均不变     

小麦赤霉病菌对多菌灵的抗药性与a2-微管蛋白序列无关析

【目的】研究小麦赤霉病菌对多菌灵的抗药性与a2-微管蛋白基因的相关性。【方法】比较对多菌灵不同敏感性水平菌株间在药剂作用下的形态学特征及其a2-微管蛋白基因异同。【结果】当敏感菌株和田间中抗菌株均在各自EC50 和EC90浓度作用下,两者分生孢子芽管和初生菌丝均表现畸形,肿胀,分支增多。根据小麦赤霉病菌核基因组测序菌株NRRL31 084（PH-1）的a2-微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列设计4对引物,采用PCR方法克隆并测定了小麦赤霉病菌（Fusarium graminearum）对多菌灵（MBC）不同敏感性表型的8个中国菌株的a2-微管蛋白基因全序列。DNA序列比对结果表明中国的4个敏感菌株和4个抗药性菌株的a2-微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列同源性没有差异,多菌灵抗药性与a2-微管蛋白无关。该基因全长1712 bp,含有4 个内元,编码453 aa;与NRRL31 084的a2-微管蛋白基因核苷酸序列同源性为99%,存在5个差异核苷酸,与其所编码的氨基酸序列同源性为100%;与其他9种真菌a2-微管蛋白基因所编码的氨基酸序列同源性为64%~89%。【结论】小麦赤霉病菌对多菌灵的抗药性与a2-微管蛋白序列无关。     

芒果炭疽病菌β-微管蛋白基因的克隆及其与多菌灵抗药性发生的关系

参照豆科合萌属（Aeschynomene）作物炭疽病菌的tub1和tub2基因序列设计了2对引物,分别从芒果（Mangifera）炭疽病菌对多菌灵(MBC)田间抗药性（MBCR）和敏感（MBCS）的菌株中扩增β_微管蛋白基因。结果只有以tub2为参照设计的引物扩增到了特异片段。进一步对全基因进行了克隆和测序。该基因序列全长1344bp,编码447aa,其核苷酸和氨基酸序列与豆科合萌属炭疽病菌的tub2基因高度同源。对芒果炭疽病菌抗、感菌株β_微管蛋白氨基酸序列进行比较分析,发现第181、237和363位氨基酸发生了突变,而其它位置（如第198位或200位）均不变。     

水稻恶苗病菌对苯并咪唑类杀菌剂抗药性分子机理研究初探

用真菌β-微管蛋白基因的丰余寡聚核着酸引物B1和B3,扩增了一段871bp的水稻恶苗病菌Fusariummoniliforme的β微管蛋白基因片段,进行了克隆和DNA序列测定,并根据该序列设计了Fmoniliformeβ-微管蛋白基因的特异性测序引物。经过对恶苗病菌对多菌灵具有不同抗性水平菌株的β-微管蛋白基因核着酸序的比较研究,表明Fmoniliforme的β微管蛋白的165,198,200和257位置氨基酸末发生突变,在克隆的片段内也未发现能引起氨基酸改变的核着酸突变。说明该菌对多菌灵产生抗性的分子机理与目前已知的其他真菌有所不同,有待进～步研究。     

应用PCR方法检测油菜菌核病菌对多菌灵的抗药性*

通过保守的寡核苷酸引物B1/B3扩增出油菜菌核病菌MBCHR和MBCS菌株的部分β-微管蛋白基因,结果发现编码的198位氨基酸由Glu(GAG)突变为Ala(GCG),表现高水平抗药性。根据MBCHR菌株的突变设计2个快速检测方法:第一种方法是根据MBCHR菌株197和198位密码子(GACGAG→GACGCG)形成ThaI酶切位点(3’CGCG 5’),将B1/B3的扩增产物874bp片段酶切成193bp和681bp片段,而MBCS菌株的PCR产物不被酶切;第二种方法用198位突变密码子作为3’末端碱基设计2个等位基因特异性寡核苷酸引物(ASO)用于“nested”PCR或直接从基因组DNA扩增。通过PCR扩增和ThaI酶切能直接检测油菜菌核病菌的MBCHR和MBCS菌株,所得结果与传统菌落直径法相吻合。     

应用PCR方法检测油菜菌核病菌对多菌灵的抗药性

通过保守的寡核苷酸引物B1/B3扩增出油菜菌核病菌MBCHR和MBCS菌株的部分β-微管蛋白基因,结果发现编码的198位氨基酸由Glu(GAG)突变为Ala(GCG),表现高水平抗药性。根据MBCHR菌株的突变设计2个快速检测方法:第一种方法是根据MBCHR菌株197和198位密码子(GACGAG→GACGCG)形成ThaI酶切位点(3’CGCG 5’),将B1/B3的扩增产物874bp片段酶切成193bp和681bp片段,而MBCS菌株的PCR产物不被酶切;第二种方法用198位突变密码子作为3’末端碱基设计2个等位基因特异性寡核苷酸引物(ASO)用于“nested”PCR或直接从基因组DNA扩增。通过PCR扩增和ThaI酶切能直接检测油菜菌核病菌的MBCHR和MBCS菌株,所得结果与传统菌落直径法相吻合。     

The β-tubulin gene from rat and human isolates of Pneumocystis carinii

The development of new drugs for treating Pneumocystis carinii infections in AIDS patients is hampered by the lack of long-term culture systems, and by our generally limited knowledge of this organism. Recently, however, we observed significant activity of various benzimidazoles against growth of this organism in short-term cultures. Benzimidazoles inhibit microtubule polymerization; there is strong evidence that the primary target is the beta-tubulin subunit. To understand the basis for benzimidazole activity against P. carinii, and to examine the apparent relatedness of this organism to fungi, we have cloned and sequenced the single beta-tubulin gene from a rat P. carinii isolate. There was 89-91% identity at the amino acid level to beta-tubulins from filamentous fungi, but only 79-82% identity to yeast and protozoal beta-tubulins. Also, eight introns were distributed throughout the P. carinii beta-tubulin gene in a pattern characteristic of filamentous fungi. Specific residues previously implicated in benzimidazole sensitivity were conserved in P. carinii beta-tubulin. The polymerase chain reaction was used to amplify a segment of P. carinii beta-tubulin DNA from bronchoalveolar lavages obtained from two patients with AIDS. There was considerable divergence at the DNA level between the human and rat sequences, but 100% identity at the amino-acid level.     

Homologous expression of a mutated beta-tubulin gene does not confer benomyl resistance on Trichoderma virens

AIMS: To clone the beta-tubulins and to induce resistance to benzimidazoles in the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma virens through site-directed mutagenesis. METHODS AND RESULTS: Two beta-tubulin genes have been cloned using PCR amplification followed by the screening of a T. virens cDNA library. The full-length cDNA clones, coding for 445 and 446 amino acids, have been designated as T. virens tub1 and T. virens tub2. A sequence alignment of these two tubulins with tubulins from other filamentous fungi has shown the presence of some unique amino acid sequences not found in those positions in other beta-tubulins. Constitutive expression of the tub2 gene with a histidine to tyrosine substitution at position 6 (known to impart benomyl/methyl benzimadazol-2-yl carbamate resistance in other fungi), under the Pgpd promoter of Aspergillus nidulans, did not impart resistance to benomyl. CONCLUSIONS: The homologous expression of tub2 gene with a histidine to tyrosine mutation at position +6, which is known to impart benomyl tolerance in other fungi, does not impart resistance in T. virens. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Unlike other Trichoderma spp., T. virens, has been difficult to mutate for benomyl tolerance. The present study, through site-directed mutagenesis, shows that a mutation known to impart benomyl tolerance in T. viride and other fungi does not impart resistance in this fungus. Understanding the mechanisms of this phenomenon will have a profound impact in plant-disease management, as many plant pathogenic fungi develop resistance to this group of fungicides forcing its withdrawal after a short period of use.     

Cloning and characterization of the gene for beta-tubulin from a benomyl-resistant mutant of Neurospora crassa and its use as a dominant selectable marker.

We cloned the beta-tubulin gene of Neurospora crassa from a benomyl-resistant strain and determined its nucleotide sequence. The gene encodes a 447-residue protein which shows strong homology to other beta-tubulins. The coding region is interrupted by six introns, five of which are within the region coding for the first 54 amino acids of the protein. Intron position comparisons between the N. crassa gene and other fungal beta-tubulin genes reveal considerable positional conservation. The mutation responsible for benomyl resistance was determined; it caused a phenylalanine-to-tyrosine change at position 167. Codon usage in the beta-tubulin gene is biased, as has been observed for other abundantly expressed N. crassa genes such as am and the H3 and H4 histone genes. This bias results in pyrimidines in the third positions of 96% of the codons in codon families in which there is a choice between purines and pyrimidines in this position. Bias is also evident by the absence of 19 of the 61 sense codons. We demonstrated that benomyl resistance is due to the cloned beta-tubulin gene of strain Bml511(r)a and that this gene can be used as a dominant selectable marker in N. crassa transformation.     

Putative polyketide synthase and laccase genes for biosynthesis of aurofusarin in Gibberella zeae

Mycelia of Gibberella zeae (anamorph, Fusarium graminearum), an important pathogen of cereal crops, are yellow to tan with white to carmine red margins. We isolated genes encoding the following two proteins that are required for aurofusarin biosynthesis from G. zeae: a type I polyketide synthase (PKS) and a putative laccase. Screening of insertional mutants of G. zeae, which were generated by using a restriction enzyme-mediated integration procedure, resulted in the isolation of mutant S4B3076, which is a pigment mutant. In a sexual cross of the mutant with a strain with normal pigmentation, the pigment mutation was linked to the inserted vector. The vector insertion site in S4B3076 was a HindIII site 38 bp upstream from an open reading frame (ORF) on contig 1.116 in the F. graminearum genome database. The ORF, designated Gip1 (for Gibberella zeae pigment mutation 1), encodes a putative laccase. A 30-kb region surrounding the insertion site and Gip1 contains 10 additional ORFs, including a putative ORF identified as PKS12 whose product exhibits about 40% amino acid identity to the products of type I fungal PKS genes, which are involved in pigment biosynthesis. Targeted gene deletion and complementation analyses confirmed that both Gip1 and PKS12 are required for aurofusarin production in G. zeae. This information is the first information concerning the biosynthesis of these pigments by G. zeae and could help in studies of their toxicity in domesticated animals.     

The heterotrimeric G-protein subunits GNG-1 and GNB-1 form a Gbetagamma dimer required for normal female fertility, asexual development, and galpha protein levels in Neurospora crassa

We have identified a gene encoding a heterotrimeric G protein gamma subunit, gng-1, from the filamentous fungus Neurospora crassa. gng-1 possesses a gene structure similar to that of mammalian Ggamma genes, consisting of three exons and two introns, with introns present in both the open reading frame and 5'-untranslated region. The GNG-1 amino acid sequence displays high identity to predicted Ggamma subunits from other filamentous fungi, including Giberella zeae, Cryphonectria parasitica, Trichoderma harzianum, and Magnaporthe grisea. Deletion of gng-1 leads to developmental defects similar to those previously characterized for Deltagnb-1 (Gbeta) mutants. Deltagng-1, Deltagnb-1, and Deltagng-1 Deltagnb-1 strains conidiate inappropriately in submerged cultures and are female sterile, producing aberrant female reproductive structures. Similar to previous results obtained with Deltagnb-1 mutants, loss of gng-1 negatively influences levels of Galpha proteins (GNA-1, GNA-2, and GNA-3) in plasma membrane fractions isolated from various tissues of N. crassa and leads to a significant reduction in the amount of intracellular cyclic AMP. In addition, we show that GNB-1 is essential for maintenance of normal steady-state levels of GNG-1, suggesting a functional interaction between GNB-1 and GNG-1. Direct evidence for a physical association between GNB-1 and GNG-1 in vivo was provided by coimmunoprecipitation.     

Monophyly of beta-tubulin and H+-ATPase gene variants in Glomus intraradices: consequences for molecular evolutionary studies of AM fungal genes

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are an ecologically important group of fungi. Previous studies showed the presence of divergent copies of beta-tubulin and V-type vacuolar H+-ATPase genes in AMF genomes and suggested horizontal gene transfer from host plants or mycoparasites to AMF. We sequenced these genes from DNA isolated from an in vitro cultured isolate of Glomus intraradices that was free of any obvious contaminants. We found two highly variable beta-tubulin sequences and variable H+-ATPase sequences. Despite this high variation, comparison of the sequences with those in gene banks supported a glomeromycotan origin of G. intraradices beta-tubulin and H+-ATPase sequences. Thus, our results are in sharp contrast with the previously reported polyphyletic origin of those genes. We present evidence that some highly divergent sequences of beta-tubulin and H+-ATPase deposited in the databases are likely to be contaminants. We therefore reject the prediction of horizontal transfer to AMF genomes. High differences in GC content between glomeromycotan sequences and sequences grouping in other lineages are shown and we suggest they can be used as an indicator to detect such contaminants. H+-ATPase phylogeny gave unexpected results and failed to resolve fungi as a natural group. beta-Tubulin phylogeny supported Glomeromeromycota as sister group of the Chytridiomycota. Contrasts between our results and trees previously generated using rDNA sequences are discussed.     

Three Drosophila beta-tubulin sequences: a developmentally regulated isoform (beta 3), the testis-specific isoform (beta 2), and an assembly-defective mutation of the testis-specific isoform (B2t8) reveal both an ancient divergence in metazoan isotypes and structural constraints for beta-tubulin function.

The genomic DNA sequence and deduced amino acid sequence are presented for three Drosophila melanogaster beta-tubulins: a developmentally regulated isoform beta 3-tubulin, the wild-type testis-specific isoform beta 2-tubulin, and an ethyl methanesulfonate-induced assembly-defective mutation of the testis isoform, B2t8. The testis-specific beta 2-tubulin is highly homologous to the major vertebrate beta-tubulins, but beta 3-tubulin is considerably diverged. Comparison of the amino acid sequences of the two Drosophila isoforms to those of other beta-tubulins indicates that these two proteins are representative of an ancient sequence divergence event which at least preceded the split between lines leading to vertebrates and invertebrates. The intron/exon structures of the genes for beta 2- and beta 3-tubulin are not the same. The structure of the gene for the variant beta 3-tubulin isoform, but not that of the testis-specific beta 2-tubulin gene, is similar to that of vertebrate beta-tubulins. The mutation B2t8 in the gene for the testis-specific beta 2-tubulin defines a single amino acid residue required for normal assembly function of beta-tubulin. The sequence of the B2t8 gene is identical to that of the wild-type gene except for a single nucleotide change resulting in the substitution of lysine for glutamic acid at residue 288. This position falls at the junction between two major structural domains of the beta-tubulin molecule. Although this hinge region is relatively variable in sequence among different beta-tubulins, the residue corresponding to glu 288 of Drosophila beta 2-tubulin is highly conserved as an acidic amino acid not only in all other beta-tubulins but in alpha-tubulins as well.