Landscape correlates of forest plant invasions: A high‐resolution analysis across the eastern United States

Aim

Invasive species occurrence is often related to the anthropogenic context of a given area. Quantifying the effects of roads is of particular interest as roads are a major vector for invasion. Our objective was to further quantify the effects of roads on forest plant invasion through a macroscale, high‐resolution investigation to assist effective invasion control and mitigation.

Location

Eastern United States.

Methods

Using invasive plant data from 23,039 forest inventory plots in 13 ecological provinces, we employed logistic regression to relate the odds of invasion to distance from a road, with adjustments for broadscale differences attributable to ecological provinces, and local scale differences in productivity, forest fragmentation and land use.

Results

The overall proportion (P) of invaded plots was 0.58 (0.65 for plots within 50 m of a road), and the highest odds (P/1 ? P) of invasion were found in relatively more productive, fragmented forest in landscapes with more than 10% agriculture or developed land cover. Wald chi‐square statistics indicated the best predictor of the odds of invasion was ecological province, followed by land use, productivity, forest fragmentation and distance from a road. Depending on the province, the adjusted odds of invasion decreased by up to 23% (typically 4%–10%) per 100 m distance from a road. The adjusted probability of invasion approached zero in only three provinces, for the least productive, least fragmented forest that was at least 2,000 m from a road in landscapes with less than 10% agricultural or developed land cover.

Main conclusions

In the eastern United States, the existence of a nearby road is less important than the landscape context associated with the road. A purely road‐mediated effect has little practical meaning because anthropogenic activities and roads are pervasive and confounded.

     

The habitat and conduit functions of roads in the spread of three invasive plant species

Nonnative plant species commonly occur along roadsides, and populations are often assumed to invade by spread along the road axis. To distinguish between the function of roadsides as movement corridors and as habitat, nonnative plant species were surveyed along roads in deciduous forest sites in southeastern Ohio, USA. The importance of road proximity was tested by comparing nonnative species abundance in 100 m transects along roads with transects in undisturbed forest. Nonnative species were most abundant and most frequently observed in roadside sites in valleys. Three common species were chosen for closer scrutiny. In a seed sowing experiment roads and open sites proved to be better locations for the germination and growth of Microstegium vimineum than non-roadside and closed-canopy sites. Tussilago farfara and Rosa multiflora occurred in a small number of disjunct patches suggesting infrequent arrival in the sampled transects. Both species were strongly clustered at scales consistent with diffusive spread by vegetative growth and short-range seed dispersal. Comparisons of distributions parallel and perpendicular to roads showed no evidence for enhanced dispersal along the road axis. Microstegium distributions were correlated with local light availability implying site saturation. Microstegium micro-distributions suggested that spread along the road axis was facilitated by movement of dormant seeds in road maintenance. Thus, roadsides appear to function as both habitat and a conduit for population expansion, with the rate of spread dependent on the life history of the individual species. These results suggest a hierarchical process of regional invasion, with different dispersal mechanisms functioning at different spatial scales.     

Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) Invasion of a Natural Forest Stand: Understory Consequence and Regeneration Pattern

Norway maple (Acer platanoidesis) is invasive in a natural stand in suburban Ithaca, NY. To determine the understory pattern and consequences of a Norway maple invasion, I compared density and species richness under Norway maples and sugar maples (Acer saccharum). Mean sapling density was significantly lower (P<0.0027) under Norway maples (3.64/100 m²±1.6 SE) than under sugar maples (19.4/100 m²±4.4 SE). Mean sapling species richness was significantly lower (P<0.0018) under Norway maples (0.7/32 m²±0.18 SE) than under sugar maples (2.6/32 m²±0.48 SE). Likewise, Norway maple regeneration is more frequent under sugar maples than sugar maple regeneration: 57% of sugar maple plots had Norway maple saplings while 0% of Norway maple plots had sugar maple saplings. Two significant plot effects were found for presence–absence: Norway maple saplings grow under Norway maples with a significantly lower frequency (P<0.03) than under sugar maples; sugar maple saplings grow under Norway maples with a significantly lower frequency (P<0.000) than under sugar maples. Across the site, Norway maple saplings were the most abundant (29 saplings for 480 m²). The success of Norway maple regeneration and the reductions in total stem density beneath Norway maples is most likely the result of its strong competitive abilities, notably its high shade tolerance and abundant seed crops.     

外来入侵植物黄顶菊在我国的地理分布格局及其时空动态

【目的】黄顶菊是20世纪90年代入侵我国的恶性外来杂草,近年来呈快速扩散蔓延趋势。全面解析黄顶菊在我国的扩散动态对制定早期监测预警等管理措施具有重要意义。【方法】通过查阅文献和标本记录及实地调查等途径重建了黄顶菊在我国扩散的历史过程,分析了其地理分布格局及其主要扩散路线,以及最早入侵地与传入途径。【结果】黄顶菊最早入侵河北省南部的邯郸、衡水,其后主要沿公路扩散蔓延,71%的分布点在距入侵地国道等主要公路2 km的范围内。目前,该杂草已从最初的入侵地向北扩散到天津市,向东扩散到山东省东营市,向西扩散到了山西省黎城市,向南扩散到了河南省开封市。黄顶菊向4个方向扩散的直线距离不等(100～350 km),这种差异与自然屏障和扩散通道相关。太行山脉是黄顶菊向西扩散的地理屏障,但这个屏障已逐渐被突破。至今,黄顶菊已入侵华北地区5个省市(河北、山东、天津、河南和山西)的100余个县。【结论】黄顶菊在我国仍处于快速扩散阶段,未来应该会继续沿公路向南和向西蔓延。因此,亟需在扩散的前沿地带开展监测预警工作,以抑制其在我国的进一步扩散。     

Habitat fragmentation in forests affects relatedness and spatial genetic structure of a native rodent,Rattus lutreolus

Habitat fragmentation can have a range of negative demographic and genetic impacts on disturbed populations. Dispersal barriers can be created, reducing gene flow and increasing population differentiation and inbreeding in isolated habitat remnants. Aggregated retention is a form of forestry that retains patches of forests as isolated island or connected edge patches, with the aim of ‘lifeboating’ species and processes, retaining structural features and improving connectivity. Swamp rats (Rattus lutreolus) are a cover‐dependent species that are sensitive to habitat removal. We examined the effects of aggregated retention forestry and forestry roads in native wet Eucalyptus forests on swamp rat gene flow and population genetic structure. We characterized neighbourhood size in unlogged forest to provide a natural state for comparison, and examined population structure at a range of spatial scales, which provided context for our findings. Tests of pairwise relatedness indicated significant differentiation between island and edge populations in aggregated retention sites, and across roads in unlogged sites. Spatial autocorrelation suggested a neighbourhood size of 42–55 m and revealed male‐biased dispersal. We found no genetic isolation by geographical distance at larger (>2.3 km) scales and populations were all significantly differentiated. Our results suggest that removal of mature forest creates barriers for swamp rat dispersal. In particular, roads may have long‐term impacts, while harvesting of native forests is likely to create only short‐term dispersal barriers at the local scale, depending on the rate of regeneration.     

桥山林区麻栎种群不同发育阶段空间格局及关联性

为探究麻栎种群不同发育阶段的空间分布特征及关联性,以黄土高原南部桥山林区麻栎天然次生林为研究对象,用L(r)函数对麻栎种群不同发育阶段空间分布特征及关联性进行分析。结果表明:(1)样地内麻栎种群各发育阶段数量结构均为不规则倒"J"型,种群结构稳定,能实现持续更新。(2)麻栎种群总体的空间分布特征受生境异质性影响较大,纯林样地中,种群在0—10 m尺度上表现为高强度聚集分布,5—35 m尺度表现为低强度聚集;混交林样地中,0—5 m尺度上表现为高强度聚集分布,5—35 m尺度上则表现为低强度聚集分布。(3)随着种群的发育及尺度的增大,麻栎种群空间聚集强度减弱,纯林样地内,麻栎幼苗在0—6 m的小尺度表现为聚集分布,6—12 m尺度上表现为随机分布;幼树在各尺度上均表现为聚集分布;中龄树与成龄树在各尺度上均表现为随机分布。混交林样地中,仅幼苗在0—6 m尺度上表现为聚集分布,其余各阶段在各尺度下均趋于随机分布。(4)种群不同发育阶段不同尺度空间关联性不同,纯林样地中,幼苗与幼树在1—2 m小尺度上呈负相关,幼树与中龄树在8 m尺度呈正相关,其余各生长阶段之间在任意尺度上均无关联性;混交林样地中,幼树与中龄树在2—12 m尺度上表现为正相关,其余各生长阶段之间在各尺度上均无关联。在未来的森林经营中,应对不同发育阶段、不同生境的种群进行不同抚育措施,促进种群良性发育。     

A dendro‐ecological study of forest overstorey productivity following the invasion of the non‐indigenous shrub Lonicera maackii

Question: Will a non‐indigenous, invasive, understorey shrub, such as Lonicera maackii (Amur honeysuckle) have an impact on the productivity of overstorey trees in hardwood forests? Location: Trees from 12 invaded and four non‐invaded sites were sampled in hardwood forests of southwestern Ohio, US. Methods: Changes in radial and basal area tree growth in the ten years prior to L. maackii invasion vs. ten years after invasion were examined using dendrochronological techniques. Intervention analysis was used to detect growth changes 25 years prior to and 25 years following invasion, and estimates of load impacts for L. maackii population and biomass were also calculated. Results: We found that the rate of radial and basal area growth of overstorey trees was reduced significantly in eleven out of twelve invaded sites. Non‐invaded sites did not exhibit this consistent pattern of reduced growth. For invaded vs. non‐invaded sites, the mean basal area growth was reduced by 15.8%, and the overall rate of basal area growth was reduced by 53.1%. Intervention analysis revealed that the first significant growth reductions were 6.25 ± 1.24 (mean ± SE) years after invasion with the greatest frequency of negative growth changes occurring 20 years after invasion. In invaded stands, 41% of trees experienced negative growth changes. In terms of invasive load estimates per 1000 L. maackii individuals, radial tree growth was reduced by 0.56 mm.a^?1, and basal area growth was reduced by 0.74 cm².a^?1, Given these findings, significant economic losses could occur in hardwood forests of Ohio. Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first study using dendrochronological techniques to investigate the impact of a non‐indigenous, understorey plant on overstorey tree growth. Active management will likely be needed to maintain forest productivity in L. maackii impacted landscapes.     

Logging and Edaphic Factors in the Invasion of an Asian Woody Vine in a Mesic North American Forest

Factors contributing to an invasion of the Asian woody vine Celastrus orbiculatus in a mesic forested Massachusetts (USA) sanctuary were investigated. Planting germinated C. orbiculatus seeds in the field revealed that, although they tolerate a wide range of conditions, seedlings grow largest in moist circumneutral soil under high irradiance. A study of naturally occurring vines in a logged forest suggested that C. orbiculatus invaded two years after harvest, and invasion may have been triggered by logging disturbance. Vine stems were more abundant on former logging roads than in surrounding selectively logged areas. Former logging roads had a significantly higher soil pH than surrounding areas and, due to the direction of construction, a significantly more southerly aspect. Fourteen years after harvest, logging roads continued to provide this aggressive exotic with superior habitat for establishment and growth.     

Temporal consistency in the spatial pattern of seed predation across a forest – old field edge

Seed predation is an important factor in determining the rate of tree establishment in abandoned agricultural land. Edges, through altered habitat use by small mammals, may influence the spatial pattern of forest regeneration in these successional sites. To determine the spatial pattern of seed predation across a forest-old field edge, we used a grid that began 30 m inside the forest and extended 60 m into the old field. Seed stations were placed at regular 10-m intervals and were monitored for removal of Acer rubrum seed for 50 d. This design was repeated over four years (1995–1998). Small mammal trapping was conducted in the final year of the study to determine the spatial pattern of seed predators within the site. Removal rates varied among the four years of the study with years of high and low removal rates. However, the spatial pattern of seed removal rate was similar in all years. Final survival ranged from 0.7–15.5% of seeds, with lower final survival in years with faster rates of seed removal (1996 and 1998). Seed removal rates and rates of discovery were greatest at the forest edge and decreased with distance into the old field. The number of seeds surviving to the end of the experiment also varied across the edge gradient, with highest survival at greater distances into the old field in low predation years. Seed removal rate covaried with spatial pattern of Peromyscus leucopus captures within the site. Seed removal and discovery was also higher under the exotic shrub Rosa multiflora, which may have provided cover for foraging seed predators. These indirect effects of edges on plant communities can potentially alter the rate and spatial pattern of tree invasion into disturbed lands and illustrate the importance of understanding plant-animal interactions in the context of habitat fragmentation.     

Road edge effect on the abundance of the lizard <Emphasis Type="Italic">Gallotia galloti</Emphasis> (Sauria: Lacertidae) in two Canary Islands forests

Transportation infrastructure is a main cause of environmental change in forest landscapes worldwide. In the Canary Islands, a dense road system fragment the native Canarian pine and laurel forests causing potential changes in population densities of endemic lacertid lizards (genus Gallotia). Our aim was to assess road edge effects on relative abundance patterns of the endemic Gallotia galloti in both forests. We also explored the species–habitat relationships in this road-fragmentation context. We found that lizard relative density in relation to road edges differed between forests. Lizards were more abundant along edges and leeward interior, but virtually absent from the interior of the windward laurel forest. In the pine forest, lizards were present at three distances from edge, with a net decrease in abundance from edge to interior. These patterns may be explained partly by differences in vegetation structure regarding road proximity in each forest that potentially affect the helio- and thigmothermic character of G. galloti, and thus its habitat use. A general suggestion of this study is that road margins create corridors that may be used by native lizards for dispersal through inhospitable forest matrix. The high road density in Tenerife may have negative implications for the conservation of the genetic variability of G. galloti. At the island scale, increased communication between lizard populations through road corridors might increase homogenization of the gene pool. Ecological processes in which this lizard plays important roles may also experience changes along road edges.     

Changes in abscisic acid levels in embryo axes of Norway maple and sycamore seeds during maturation and dehydration

Changes in the abscisic acid (ABA) levels in embryo axes of seeds, belonging to the orthodox (Norway maple — Acer platanoides L.) and recalcitrant (sycamore — Acer pseudoplatanus L.) categories, were investigated throughout maturation using an ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) test. Concentration of ABA in embryo axes substantially differed depending on species and sampling date. ABA was always higher in Norway maple except at the end of seed maturation when ABA content was similar in both species. During maturation ABA decreased in both species but the decline was more marked in Norway maple than in sycamore (11 vs. 3 fold). These species also differed in the pattern of ABA changes, which in sycamore embryo axes was very regular, while in Norway maple a sharp decrease was recorded after acquisition by the seeds of tolerance to desiccation. Dehydration of embryo axes of Norway maple caused a further significant decrease of ABA level. In contrast, in dehydrated sycamore embryo axes ABA content did not decrease, but slightly increased. The role of ABA in desiccation tolerance and dormancy of Norway maple and sycamore seeds is discussed.     

Reference conditions and historical changes in an unharvested ponderosa pine stand on sedimentary soil

Much of the previous research on spatial reference conditions in dry frequent fire pine forests have come from stand‐level patterns under regionally average ecosystem conditions (e.g. soil type and precipitation). We evaluated the 1883 reference conditions of an uncut ponderosa pine stand representing a far end of the range of variability in terms of regionally unusual environmental conditions. Using a forest reconstruction model, univariate and bivariate Ripley's K functions, and regression analysis, we determined 1883 structural and spatial reference conditions, and compared those to the contemporary (2010) stand. Historical stand density was 77 trees/ha with a basal area of 8.0 m²/ha. Reference spatial patterns were significantly aggregated from 1 to 2 m and randomly distributed at distances greater than 2 m. Nearly 40% of the reconstructed trees were individuals, the average patch size was 2.9 trees, and the largest patch had 7 members. The contemporary stand had considerably greater densities and basal area than historical conditions and showed aggregation at all distances. Bivariate spatial analysis indicated attraction of post‐settlement recruitment to live pre‐settlement trees from 1 to 6 m and no association at distances greater than 6 m. We speculate that the historically random tree pattern is the product of a variety of factors including soil parent material, climate, and more homogeneous resource partitioning.     

The small‐scale spatiotemporal pattern of the seedbank and vegetation of a highly invasive weed,Centaurea solstitialis: strength in numbers

The dynamics of invasive plant populations are intriguing and informative of the importance of population and community‐level processes. A dominant approach to understanding and describing invasion has been the development of unique hypotheses to explain invasion. However, here we directly explore the relevance of the small‐scale, spatiotemporal pattern in seedbanks and plants of the highly invasive weed, Centaurea solstitialis, to determine whether pattern can be used to contrast predictions associated with the simple ecological hypotheses of seed versus microsite limitations. At three invaded grasslands in California, highly invaded (> 20 adult plants present), invaded (< 10 adults), and uninvaded (no C. solstitialis plants) sites were selected. The spatial pattern of the seedbank was assessed using fine‐scale, 2 cm diameter contiguous cores and geostatistical statistics, and the number of C. solstitialis seeds in the seedbank was recorded in addition to the total community seedbank density. Three of the four critical predictions associated with the seed limitation hypothesis were clearly supported as an explanation for the patterns of C. solstitialis invasion observed in the field. The density of C. solstitialis seeds decreased from high to low extents of invasion, there was no relationship between the community seedbank and C. solstitialis seeds, and the distances between C. solstitialis plants was inversely related to the density of C. solstitialis seeds. However, both the persistent and transient seedbanks of C. solstitialis were spatially aggregated with autocorrelation up to 12 cm² which suggests that aggregation is a consistent attribute of this species in the seedbank regardless of extent of invasion. This basic pattern‐based approach clearly detected an ecological signal of invasive seedbank dynamics and is thus a useful tool for subsequent studies of invasions in grasslands.     

庐山香果树毛竹混交林空间格局研究

为了解庐山毛竹入侵对香果树的影响,采用Ripley’sK(t)函数分析香果树毛竹混交林群落空间分布格局和种间关联关系。结果表明:香果树幼树在较小的尺度上呈聚集分布,较大尺度上随机分布直至均匀分布;香果树成年树在较小的尺度上呈随机分布,较大尺度上聚集分布;毛竹在所有的研究尺度上为显著聚集分布,且随着尺度的增大,聚集强度增加。毛竹与香果树幼树在较小的尺度上没有明显关联性,在较大的尺度上呈显著负相关;毛竹与香果树成年树在一系列尺度上均表现为显著负相关。根据空间关联性分析结果,应从幼龄起对生长有香果树的森林群落进行必要的管理,伐除毛竹及一些影响较大的其它乔木树种,挖除地下竹鞭,为香果树提供良好的生长环境,进而恢复其种群的天然合理配置。否则,香果树这一珍贵的植物资源在庐山将有灭绝的危险。     

藏东南急尖长苞冷杉群落空间点格局分析及其时空动态

为探究藏东南色季拉山急尖长苞冷杉（Abies georgei var.smithii）群落的空间分布格局及其时空动态，在急尖长苞冷杉纯林中设置1个1 hm²的固定样地，记录样地内所有高度>2 m的急尖长苞冷杉的年龄、胸径、冠幅和坐标等指标。根据径级分布分析种群的径级结构，采用点格局分析方法对种群的空间格局进行分析。结果显示：（1）急尖长苞冷杉的径级分布为倒"J"型，结构稳定，自然更新良好。（2）成树在各个时期和不同尺度上都呈随机分布；幼树在1891年之后的各个时期在小尺度（2 m）上呈聚集分布，1981-2012年在1-41 m尺度上陆续出现聚集分布；幼苗在1861-1920年在小尺度（1-2 m）上呈聚集分布，1951-1980年出现聚集分布的尺度范围最大（1-35 m、41 m和48 m）。（3）在不同时期中，不同年龄组树木之间几乎都呈正关联或无关联；成树和幼树随时间推移从无关联到在各个尺度上陆续出现正关联的变化；成树和幼苗随时间呈无关联、中大尺度（32-35 m、44 m和49 m）正关联和无关联的变化；幼苗和幼树呈现从无关联转变为小尺度（8 m）正关联和小、中尺度（1-30 m）正关联的变化。研究结果表明：成树在小尺度上对幼龄树存在一定的抑制，但在较大尺度是促进的。1951-1980年样地中的幼苗数量大量增加，随后30年幼树的数量因幼苗长大也有增加，这在一定程度上增大了竞争。但总体来看急尖长苞冷杉群落在演替过程中具有种内促进作用。     

青藏高原东缘林线杜鹃-岷江冷杉原始林的空间格局

为深入理解高山林线原始林中优势树种的空间结构特征和种间关系,以青藏高原东缘林线杜鹃-岷江冷杉原始林1 hm²样地调查数据为基础,采用成对相关函数g(r)函数,分析了优势种岷江冷杉(Abies faxoniana)和凝毛杜鹃(Rhododendron agglutinatum)各径级的空间分布格局和各径级间的空间关联性。结果表明:岷江冷杉和凝毛杜鹃径级分布连续,呈倒"J"型,均为进展种群。小尺度上,对于岷江冷杉活立木(小树+中树+大树)、小树、中树为显著聚集分布,大树为均匀分布,死树则为随机分布;凝毛杜鹃活立木(小树+中树+大树)、小树、中树、大树、死树均为显著聚集分布。小尺度上随径级增大岷江冷杉的分布格局从聚集分布趋于均匀分布。岷江冷杉大树与其小树的空间关联验证了Janzen-Connell假说中的距离制约效应。通过验证接受了随机死亡假说,发现种内的密度制约效应不明显。两个树种的枯立木对凝毛杜鹃小树均表现为排斥关系,而对岷江冷杉小树表现为相互独立的关系。两个优势种总体表现为相互独立,但种间不同径级间的空间关联性各异。     

Human-mediated dispersal via rural road maintenance can move invasive propagules

Although preventing introduction is the best way to avoid invasive species problems, the dynamics of spread into new areas are not well understood. Invasive plant presence has frequently been associated with roads, but quantification of the mechanisms behind this phenomenon is lacking. Although some invasive plants may experience more rapid natural dispersal in a roadside habitat, scaling up this increase often cannot account for regional spread. Typically human activities drive long-distance dispersal, which is critical for predicting large-scale spread rates. We followed the movement of seeds by routine rural road maintenance as a potential factor explaining rapid regional spread of invasives. We found that 23.5% of seeds were not moved by road grading, 33.1% moved short distances (between 0 and 10 m), 41.8% moved intermediate distances (10–50 m), and very few moved long distances (more than 50 m, 1.6%). The furthest movement observed was 273 m. Nearly 1/3 of seeds were moved moderate distances; this intermediate distance dispersal is likely a key driver of the presence of invasives along the entirety of many roadsides and poses a large threat to the forest interior. Propagule spread via grading is a fairly stochastic process; nonetheless, a small but potentially important portion of propagules are moved long distances, accelerating spread rates. We discuss these results from the perspective of the rapid invasion of Microstegium vimineum in central Pennsylvania, USA. To slow the spread of seeds via road maintenance, managers should consider shortening grading passes, inspecting vehicles for invasive propagules, and otherwise ensuring that seeds are not transported long distances. Greater attention should be paid to human aided dispersal of invasive plant propagules particularly in light of an increasing forest roads network associated with logging and natural gas development in some parts of the United States.     

北京山区栓皮栎林优势种群点格局分析

采用点格局分析方法对北京山区栓皮栎林主要种群和不同发育阶段种群的空间分布格局及相互关系进行分析。结果表明:(1)群落物种组成简单,栓皮栎和油松是群落的优势种群,优势种群以中径木为主,缺乏可供更新的幼苗,种群呈现出衰退趋势;(2)在研究尺度内,栓皮栎、油松单种的空间分布格局以聚集型分布为主,随着尺度的增大呈现出随机分布和均匀分布的趋势;栓皮栎和油松呈现显著负相关;(3)优势种群不同发育阶段的空间分布格局与研究尺度紧密相关,栓皮栎小树和中树以聚集型分布为主、大树呈随机分布,而油松不同发育阶段均以随机分布为主;(4)栓皮栎、油松种群不同发育阶段之间的空间关联主要发生在小尺度范围内,小树和中树以正关联为主,而中树和大树、小树和大树以负关联为主;随着研究尺度的增大趋于无关联。     

择伐对思茅松自然种群结构和空间分布格局的影响

思茅松是云南省重要的材脂兼用树种,而择伐是思茅松天然林管理的有效手段,也是获取木材的重要途径。基于对云南省景谷县思茅松天然林的样地调查数据,采用种群径级结构代替年龄结构、Ripley的L函数点格局等方法,对思茅松天然林在不同强度择伐10a后的种群结构和空间分布格局及其不同发育阶段在不同尺度下的相互关系进行了系统研究和分析。结果表明:择伐10a后3种类型的思茅松自然种群的胸径、树高之间呈显著的正相关且可用幂指数模拟预测模型。未择伐的思茅松种群呈衰退型,轻度择伐(12.9%)后种群呈稳定型,中度择伐(29.3%)后的种群属增长型,适当的中度择伐有利于自然种群的更新;未择伐与中度择伐后的思茅松种群分布格局整体呈随机型,但后者较前者更趋向于均匀分布,轻度择伐后的思茅松种群分布格局随着尺度的增加由随机转向聚集分布。择伐对不同径级思茅松天然林种群空间分布格局有重要影响,未择伐的思茅松自然种群随着发育阶段的发展,多数尺度上由随机分布逐渐转变为聚集分布,至大树则又以随机分布为主;轻度择伐和中度择伐的思茅松自然种群则随着发育阶段的发展而由完全的随机分布逐渐转变为聚集分布,中度择伐的聚集分布则更为明显。思茅松不同发育阶段间在所有尺度上基本都呈显著正相关,表明思茅松种群种内竞争弱,有利于种群的维持。     

Population Dynamics and Potential for Biological Control of an Exotic Invasive Shrub in Hawaiian Rainforests

Introduction of biological control agents to reduce the abundance of exotic invasive plant species is often considered necessary but risky. I used matrix projection models to investigate the current population dynamics of Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae), an invasive shrub, in two rainforest stands on the island of Hawaii and to predict the efficacy of hypothetical biological control agents in reducing population growth rates. Stage-structured matrix models were parameterized with field data collected over 3 years from 2906 C. hirta plants in a recently invaded forest with an open overstory (Laupahoehoe) and 600 plants in a less recently invaded forest with a closed canopy (Waiakea). Asymptotic population growth rates (λ) for both populations in all years were greater than one, demonstrating that both populations were growing. Composite elasticities were high for the seedling life-history stage and fecundity, and near-term demographic elasticities suggested that changes in seedling survival would have the largest effect on population size in the short term. However, simulations showed that almost 100% of seedlings or new recruits produced per reproductive adult would have to be destroyed to cause populations to go locally extinct under current environmental conditions. Herbivores or pathogens that decrease survival across all vegetative stages by 12% at Waiakea and 64% at Laupahoehoe were projected to cause the populations to decline. Thus, biocontrol agents that reduce survival of multiple life-history stages rather than seed production should be pursued to control C. hirta in Hawaiian rainforests.