质谱鉴定PC12细胞蛋白酶体抑制剂PSI-诱导性包含体中的LBs蛋白质

路易(小)体(Lewy body, LB）构成特征的蛋白质组份（protein content）在体外形成的路易(小)体样包含体（Lewy body-like inclusion）或聚集体（aggresome）中能够获得鉴定．通过蛋白质组学方法鉴定LB蛋白质组分是一种新的途径.10 µmol/L人工合成蛋白酶体抑制剂PSI（proteasomal inhibitor）作用PC12细胞48 h使其产生PSI诱导性包含体（PSI-induced inclusions）. 为了在体外指明可能的LB蛋白质组分,通过生物化学分级分离、双向电泳（two-dimensional electrophoresis,2-D）和肽质量指纹鉴定（identification via peptide mass fingerprints,PMF）的蛋白质组学方法,鉴定了2个涉及突触递质合成的蛋白质、6个26 S蛋白酶体亚基、2个细胞骨架蛋白、2个线粒体蛋白、1个抗氧化蛋白和7个分子伴侣蛋白和（或）分子伴侣样蛋白等20个LB蛋白质组分.结果提示,当PC12细胞发生蛋白酶体抑制时,这20个LB蛋白质组分可能被富集到PSI诱导性包含体中．     

泛素-蛋白酶体途径的组成和功能

泛素-蛋白酶体途径是细胞内蛋白质选择性降解的重要途径,泛素分子主要通过泛素活化酶、泛素结合酶和泛素-蛋白连接酶与靶蛋白结合形成一条多泛素链,最后被26S蛋白酶体识别和降解。泛素-蛋白酶体途径参与细胞内的多种活动过程,包括细胞凋亡、MHCI类抗原的递呈、细胞周期以及细胞内信号转导,与细胞的一些生理功能和病理状态有着密切的联系。本文主要对组成泛素-蛋白酶体途径的各成分作一综述。     

非泛素依赖地降解蛋白质研究进展

如何识别和选择性降解蛋白质是细胞生命过程中非常重要的环节,泛素-蛋白酶体需能降解途径的发现,揭示了蛋白质在细胞内选择性降解的普遍方式,成为研究焦点.然而,很少关注蛋白酶体以非泛素依赖方式降解蛋白质的可能性.近年来,已发现不少蛋白质被蛋白酶体以非泛素依赖方式降解.该途径涉及降解某些短寿命的调节蛋白、错误折叠蛋白、衰老蛋白和氧化蛋白,以及新合成蛋白的"质量控制",并涉及病理过程如癌症、神经退行性疾病,所以具有非常重要的生理和病理作用.总结了近一二十年来发现的一些具有代表性的被蛋白酶体以非泛素依赖方式降解的蛋白质,并重点论述了其作用的分子机制,以期以点带面地展示这一领域的研究概况.     

原癌蛋白c-Cbl促进受体酪氨酸激酶EphA2的降解

c Cbl最近被证明是泛素 蛋白酶体 (ubiquitin proteasome)通路中的一个新的RINGFinger型泛素连接酶 (ubiquitinligase ,E3) .c Cbl可以介导受体酪氨酸激酶和非受体酪氨酸受体激酶的降解 .利用内源性表达较高EphA2的大肠癌细胞株HCT1 1 6 ,通过转染野生型c Cbl和显性负变异体(dominantnegativemutant)c Cbl 70Z ,探讨c Cbl在EphA2降解中的作用 .结果显示 ,c Cbl可促进磷酸化EphA2的降解 ,EphA2的降解必须依赖其配体ephrin A1的刺激 ;利用蛋白酶体 (proteasome)抑制剂MG1 32可抑制磷酸化的EphA2降解 ,提示EphA2的最终降解部位是在蛋白酶体 .研究的结果提示 ,c Cbl作为泛素连接酶诱导磷酸化后的EphA2在蛋白酶体中降解     

Parkin、PINK1、DJ-1和线粒体功能障碍与帕金森病

帕金森病(Parkinson’s disese,PD)是一种常见的神经退行性疾病,但到目前为止发病机制尚不明确,环境和遗传等因素与其发病有密切关系。研究表明,蛋白质异常积聚(泛素/蛋白酶体途径)和线粒体氧化损伤(线粒体途径),可能是导致PD患者发病的关键分子机制。Parkin、PINK1和DJ-1等基因突变与常染色体隐性的家族性PD有关,这些相关基因编码的蛋白对于维持线粒体形态和功能起着重要的作用。本文将主要从Parkin、PINK1、DJ-1和线粒体功能障碍与帕金森病的关系进行综述。     

甲醛诱导Tau蛋白形成“孔道样”聚集结构

尽管Lin等(University of California, Santa Barbara)就蛋白构象病中细胞死亡的机制提出了“非特异性淀粉样离子通道”(aspecific amyloid ion channels)学说,但到目前为止,尚未发现神经Tau蛋白能形成“孔道样”聚集结构,也未寻找到可以导致蛋白质形成“孔道样”聚集结构的诱导剂．依据本实验室提出的“散发性老年痴呆发生发展中的内源性甲醛慢性损伤”假说,采用一定浓度的甲醛与Tau蛋白进行温育,观察到甲醛可以明显诱导Tau蛋白分子聚集并形成淀粉样沉积物,同时也观察到了Tau蛋白“孔道样”聚集结构．上述结果为探索甲醛诱导Tau蛋白错误折叠形成的产物导致细胞代谢障碍和死亡的机制提供了新的研究思路．     

泛素-蛋白酶体途径对雌激素受体α降解的调控

泛素-蛋白酶体途径是真核细胞内降解蛋白质的重要途径,对于维持细胞的正常功能起着重要作用。雌激素受体α(ERα)作为转录因子,与乳腺癌的发生及进展关系密切,抑制ERα的功能已经成为治疗乳腺癌的主要策略之一。目前发现泛素-蛋白酶体途径能够促进ERα降解,影响其转录。简要综述了泛素-蛋白酶体途径对雌激素受体α的转录及降解调控的研究进展。     

蛋白质聚集的三种途径和控制策略

蛋白质聚集在生物医药生产中是一个关键问题。在蛋白质的生产、运输和储存的过程中,多种因素都能导致蛋白质发生聚集。随着对蛋白质聚集这一现象的深入研究,发现蛋白质聚集的产生存在不同途径和各种影响因素,如理化因素、翻译修饰和蛋白质结构等。由于蛋白质的聚集对于蛋白质的活性和均一性具有重大影响,因此了解蛋白质聚集的途径以及研究如何控制聚集对获得均质蛋白是十分有意义的。本文主要阐述了3D结构域交换、盐桥的形成、氧化应激3种蛋白质的聚集途径,以及在蛋白质生产、运输、储存过程中控制蛋白质聚集的方法,这有助于减少由于蛋白质聚集体形成而造成的损失,并提高实验研究和商业生产中的蛋白质纯度和均质性。     

泛素连接酶和去泛素化酶在帕金森病中的作用

中脑黑质多巴胺能神经元特异性损伤和α突触核蛋白聚集的分子机制是帕金森病（Parkinson’s disease,PD）研究领域亟待解决的问题。蛋白质异常聚集很大程度上是由于泛素-蛋白酶体系统（ubiquitin-proteasome system,UPS）功能障碍引起的。蛋白质泛素化由一系列泛素化酶级联反应促进，并受去泛素化酶（deubiquitylases,DUBs）的反向调节。泛素化和去泛素化过程异常导致蛋白质异常聚集和包涵体形成，进而损伤神经元。近来研究报道，蛋白质的泛素化和去泛素化修饰在PD的发病机制中发挥重要作用。E3泛素连接酶促进蛋白质的泛素化，有利于α突触核蛋白的清除、促进多巴胺能神经元的存活、维持线粒体的功能等。DUBs可以去掉底物蛋白质的泛素化修饰，抑制α突触核蛋白的降解，调控线粒体的功能和神经元内铁的稳态。本文以E3泛素连接酶和DUBs为切入点，综述了蛋白质泛素化和去泛素化修饰参与多巴胺能神经元损伤机制的最新研究进展。     

泛素/26S蛋白酶体途径与植物的生长发育

泛素/26S蛋白酶体途径在植物蛋白降解系统中起重要作用,泛素分子主要通过泛素活化酶(E1)、泛素结合酶(E2)和泛素连接酶(E3)将靶蛋白泛素化,泛素化的蛋白最后被26S蛋白酶体识别和降解。泛素蛋白酶体途径参与植物体内的多种生理过程,如花和胚的发育、光形态建成、植物生长物质等几乎所有的生长发育过程,本文主要对泛素/26S蛋白酶体途径及其在植物生长发育过程中的精确调控作用进行综述。     

Cytosolic and nuclear aggregation of the amyloid beta-peptide following its expression in the endoplasmic reticulum

Misfolded secretory and membrane proteins are known to be exported from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the cytosol where they are degraded by proteasomes. When the amount of exported misfolded proteins exceeds the capacity of this degradation mechanism the proteins accumulate in the form of pericentriolar aggregates called aggresomes. Here, we show that the amyloid beta-peptide (Abeta) forms cytosolic aggregates after its export from the ER. These aggregates share several constituents with aggresomes. However, Abeta aggregates are distinct from aggresomes in that they do not accumulate around the centrosome but are distributed randomly around the nucleus. In addition to these cytosolic aggregates, Abeta forms intranuclear aggregates which have as yet not been found for proteins exported from the ER. These findings show that proteins exported from the ER to the cytosol which escape degradation by the proteasome are not necessarily incorporated into aggresomes. We conclude that several distinct aggregation pathways may exist for proteins exported from the ER to the cytosol.     

Intracellular localization of proteasomes

Proteasomes are present in the cytoplasm and in the nuclei of all eukaryotic cells, however their relative abundance within those compartments is highly variable. In the cytoplasm, proteasomes associate with the centrosomes, cytoskeletal networks and the outer surface of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In the nucleus, proteasomes are present throughout the nucleoplasm but are void from the nucleoli. Sometimes they associate with discrete subnuclear domains called the PML nuclear bodies (POD domains). PML bodies in the nucleus, and the pericentrosomal area of the cytoplasm may function as proteolytic centers of the cell, since they are enriched in components of the proteasome system. Under conditions of impaired proteolysis proteasomes and ubiquitinated proteins further accumulate at these locations, forming organized aggregates. In case of the pericentrosomal area those aggregates have been termed "aggresomes". Once formed, aggresomes can impair the function of the proteasome system, which may promote apoptosis. Under favorable conditions they can be cleared, probably by autophagy.     

Protein Folding, Misfolding, and Aggregation. Formation of Inclusion Bodies and Aggresomes

In this review the mechanisms of protein folding, misfolding, and aggregation as well as the mechanisms of cell defense against toxic protein aggregates are considered. Misfolded and aggregated proteins in cells are exposed to chaperone-mediated refolding and are degraded by proteasomes if refolding is impossible. Proteolysis-stable protein aggregates accumulate, forming inclusion bodies. In eucaryotic cells, protein aggregates form structures in the pericentrosomal area that have been termed "aggresomes". Formation of aggresomes in cells is a general cellular response to the presence of misfolded proteins when the degrading capacity of the cells is exceeded. The role of aggresomes in disturbance of the proteasomal system operation and in cellular death, particularly in the so-called "protein conformational diseases", is discussed.     

Presenilin-binding protein forms aggresomes in monkey kidney COS-7 cells

A novel presenilin-binding protein (PBP) is specifically expressed in the brain, and its level in the soluble fraction of Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains is much less than that in the age-matched controls. Recently, several proteins, including presenilin (PS), have been found to form structures of aggregated proteins, called aggresomes, when the production of the proteins exceeds their rate of degradation by proteasomes. Based on these observations it has been proposed that the aggresome may represent one of the mechanisms forthe formation of cytoplasmic deposits which are linked to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders including AD. It is shown here that the overexpression of PBP or the suppression of proteasome activity in monkey kidney COS-7 cells leads to the accumulation of detergent-insoluble and multiubiquitinated PBP aggregates. PBP also forms aggregates in primary cultures of neurons in the presence of a proteasome inhibitors. PBP aggregates have the characteristics of aggresomes, including the localization to microtubule organization centers and the disruption of intermediate filaments. These observations suggest that the malfunctioning of the proteasome can cause the formation of PBP aggresomes, which may lead to AD.     

Co-chaperone CHIP Stabilizes Aggregate-prone Malin, a Ubiquitin Ligase Mutated in Lafora Disease

Lafora disease (LD) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder caused by mutation in either the dual specificity phosphatase laforin or ubiquitin ligase malin. A pathological hallmark of LD is the accumulation of cytoplasmic polyglucosan inclusions commonly known as Lafora bodies in both neuronal and non-neuronal tissues. How mutations in these two proteins cause disease pathogenesis is not well understood. Malin interacts with laforin and recruits to aggresomes upon proteasome inhibition and was shown to degrade misfolded proteins. Here we report that malin is spontaneously misfolded and tends to be aggregated, degraded by proteasomes, and forms not only aggresomes but also other cytoplasmic and nuclear aggregates in all transfected cells upon proteasomal inhibition. Malin also interacts with Hsp70. Several disease-causing mutants of malin are comparatively more unstable than wild type and form aggregates in most transfected cells even without the inhibition of proteasome function. These cytoplasmic and nuclear aggregates are immunoreactive to ubiquitin and 20 S proteasome. Interestingly, progressive proteasomal dysfunction and cell death is also most frequently observed in the mutant malin-overexpressed cells compared with the wild-type counterpart. Finally, we demonstrate that the co-chaperone carboxyl terminus of the Hsc70-interacting protein (CHIP) stabilizes malin by modulating the activity of Hsp70. All together, our results suggest that malin is unstable, and the aggregate-prone protein and co-chaperone CHIP can modulate its stability.     

Hassles with taking out the garbage: aggravating aggresomes

Diverse human diseases ranging from amyloidosis to neurodegenerative diseases are now recognized as 'conformational diseases' caused by protein misfolding and protein aggregation. Misfolded and aggregated proteins are usually handled in the cell through chaperone-mediated refolding, or when that is impossible, destroyed by proteasomal degradation. Recent evidence suggests that cells might have evolved a third pathway that involves the sequestration of aggregated proteins into specialized 'holding stations' called aggresomes. The aggresomal pathway provides a mechanism by which aggregated proteins form particulate (∼ 200 nm) mini-aggregates that are transported on microtubules (MTs) towards the MT organizing center (MTOC) by a process mediated by the minus-end motor protein dynein. Once at the MTOC, the individual particles pack into a single, usually spherical aggresome (1–3 μm) that surrounds the MTOC. Aggresomes are dynamic: they recruit various chaperones and proteasomes, presumably to aid in the disposal of the aggregated proteins. In addition, the formation of an aggresome is likely to activate the autophagic clearance mechanism that terminates in lysosomal degradation. Hence, the aggresome pathway may provide a novel system to deliver aggregated proteins from the cytoplasm to lysosomes for degradation. Although it is clear that many pathological states correlate with the formation of aggresomes, their causal relationships remain hotly debated. Here, we describe the current state of our knowledge of the aggresome pathway and outline the open questions that provide the focus of current research.     

Dominant-negative effect of mutant valosin-containing protein in aggresome formation

Lewy bodies (LBs) are the pathologic hallmark of Parkinson's disease. Recent studies revealed that LBs exhibit several morphologic and molecular similarities to aggresomes. Aggresomes are perinuclear aggregates representing intracellular deposits of misfolded proteins. Recently, valosin-containing protein (VCP) was one of the components of LBs, suggesting its involvement in LB formation. Here, we showed the localization of VCP in aggresomes induced by a proteasome inhibitor in cultured cells. Cells overexpressing mutant VCP (K524M: D2) showed reduced aggresome formation relative to those overexpressing wild-type and mutant (K251M: D1) VCPs. Our findings suggest that the D2 domain is involved in aggresome formation.     

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of Parkinson's disease: neurotoxins, causative genes, and inflammatory cytokines

1. Parkinson's disease (PD) is considered to be an aging-related neurodegeneration of catecholamine (CA) systems [typically A9 dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra and A6 noradrenaline (NA) neurons in the locus coeruleus]. The main symptom is movement disorder caused by a DA deficiency at the nerve terminals of fibers that project from the substantia nigra to the striatum. Most PD is sporadic (sPD) without any hereditary history. sPD is speculated to be caused by some exogenous or endogenous substances that are neurotoxic toward CA neurons, which toxicity leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and subsequent oxidative stress resulting in the programmed cell death (apoptosis or autophagy) of DA neurons. 2. Recent studies on the causative genes of rare familial PD (fPD) cases, such as alpha-synuclein and parkin, suggest that dysfunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and the resultant accumulation of misfolded proteins and endoplasmic reticulum stress may cause the death of DA neurons. 3. Activated microglia, which accompany an inflammatory process, are present in the nigro-striatum of the PD brain; and they produce protective or toxic substances, such as cytokines, neurotrophins, and reactive oxygen or nitrogen species. These activated microglia may be neuroprotective at first in the initial stage, and later may become neurotoxic owing to toxic change to promote the progression toward the death of CA neurons.4. All of these accumulating evidences on sPD and fPD points to a hypothesis that multiple primary causes of PD may be ultimately linked to a final common signal-transduction pathway leading to programmed cell death, i.e., apoptosis or autophagy, of the CA neurons.     

Recruitment of APPL1 to ubiquitin-rich aggresomes in response to proteasomal impairment

Inhibitors of proteasomes have been shown to affect endocytosis of multiple membrane receptors, in particular at the step of cargo sorting for lysosomal degradation. Here we demonstrate that the inhibition of proteasomes causes specific redistribution of an endosomal adaptor APPL1, which undergoes initial solubilization from APPL endosomes followed by clustering in the perinuclear region. MG132 treatment decreases APPL1 labeling of endosomes while the staining of the canonical early endosomes with EEA1 remains unaffected. Upon prolonged treatment with proteasome inhibitors, endogenous APPL1 localizes to the site of aggresome formation, with perinuclear APPL1 clusters encapsulated within a vimentin cage and co-localizing with aggregates positive for ubiquitin. The clustering of APPL1 is concomitant with increased ubiquitination and decreased solubility of this protein. We determined that the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4 enhances polyubiquitination of APPL1, and the ubiquitin molecules attached to APPL1 are linked through lysine-63. Taken together, these results add APPL1 to only a handful of endogenous cellular proteins known to be recruited to aggresomes induced by proteasomal stress. Moreover, our studies suggest that the proteasome inhibitors that are already in clinical use affect the localization, ubiquitination and solubility of APPL1.     

UCH-L1 aggresome formation in response to proteasome impairment indicates a role in inclusion formation in Parkinson's disease

Aggresomes are associated with many neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease, and polyglutamine disorders such as Huntington's disease. These inclusions commonly contain ubiquitylated proteins. The stage at which these proteins are ubiquitylated remains unclear. A malfunction of the ubiquitin/proteasome system (UPS) may be associated with their formation. Conversely, it may reflect an unsuccessful attempt by the cell to remove them. Previously, we demonstrated that overexpression of Parkin, a ubiquitin-protein ligase associated with autosomal recessive juvenile Parkinsonism, generates aggresome-like inclusions in UPS compromised cells. Mutations in the de-ubiquitylating enzyme, UCH-L1, cause a rare form of Parkinsonism. We now demonstrate that overexpression of UCH-L1 also forms ribbon-like aggresomes in response to proteasomal inhibition. Disease-associated mutations, which affect enzymatic activities, significantly increased the number of inclusions. UCH-L1 aggresomes co-localized with ubiquitylated proteins, HSP70, gamma-tubulin and, to a lesser extent, the 20S proteasome and the chaperone BiP. Similar to Parkin inclusions, we found UCH-L1 aggresomes to be surrounded by a tubulin rather than a vimentin cage-like structure. Furthermore, UCH-L1 aggregates with Parkin and alpha-synuclein in some, but not all inclusions, suggesting the heterogeneous nature of these inclusion bodies. This study provides additional evidence that aggregation-prone proteins are likely to recruit UPS components in an attempt to clear proteins from failing proteasomes. Furthermore, UCH-L1 accumulation is likely to play a pathological role in inclusion formation in Parkinson's disease.