The diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the subtropical forest of Huangshan (Yellow Mountain), East-Central China

The world heritage of Huangshan is located in the east-central China. In order to obtain a better overview of biodiversity in Huangshan, we investigated the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the soil of Huangshan. Forty-two rhizosphere soil samples were collected and 989 arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spore samples were obtained using the wet-sieving method. Twenty-five species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were identified from the collections. The species were of the genera Acaulospora (6 species), Entrophospora (1 species), Glomus (16 species) and Scutellospora (2 species). Acaulospora and Glomus were dominant at the study site. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi spore density ranged from 45 to 3,250 per 100 g soil (average 839), and the species richness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi ranged from 1 to 9 (average 4.2) per soil sample. Shannon–Wiener index and Simpson’s index were calculated to evaluate the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity. The diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community in the subtropical forest of Huangshan may be the result of mutual selection between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the ecological environment.     

Mycorrhizal associations and soil properties of native Allanblackia stuhlmannii stands in the Eastern Usambara Mountains,Tanzania

Allanblackia stuhlmannii is a tree species currently under domestication. Potential mycorrhizal relationships of A. stuhlmannii and soil properties of native stands were investigated to determine the soil–environmental requirements of the species. Roots and soil samples were collected from five sites with A. stuhlmannii stands along an altitudinal transect in Amani Nature Reserve, Tanzania. Mycorrhizal status was investigated by combining microscopy with molecular analysis of the fungal communities. Soil adjacent to the A. stuhlmannii seedlings was analysed for physical and chemical properties and the sites were characterised. We showed that A. stuhlmannii form symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and that there was a diverse microbiome associated with the roots. The soils, classified as Ferralsol and Acrisol, were very well drained, had a pH_CaCl2 generally at or below 4, high exchangeable acidity and content of sesquioxides and low effective cation exchange capacity and concentrations of most nutrients. We conclude that A. stuhlmannii is tolerant to high Al availability and possesses mechanisms for acquisition of P and other macronutrients at low soil availability, possibly through mycorrhizal symbiosis. However, being adapted to low‐pH soils, it may be less efficient in acquiring Fe, Mn and/or Zn at higher soil pH. Thus, it may be most suited to introduction on farms situated on acid soils.     

Use of soil transfer for reforestation on abandoned mined lands in Alaska

Soil transfers from an intermediate successional site and a mature forest site were applied to Populus balsamifera L. cuttings and Alnus crispa (Ait.) Pursh seedlings placed on an abandoned mined site in south central Alaska to improve plant establishment. Mycorrhizal fungi in the soil transfers from the two successional stages were hypothesized to have different effects on plant species that colonize disturbed sites at different times or on different substrates. The site consisted of coarse, dry, low-nutrient spoils and was naturally colonized by scattered P. balsamifera but not A. crispa, although seed sources for both were adjacent to the site. Physical dimensions of the transplanted seedlings and cuttings were measured at the beginning and end of each growing season. Selected plants were harvested at the end of the 2-year study and examined for mycorrhizal formation, current growth, and leaf tissue nutrient concentrations. Both plant species were taller when treated with the soil transfers from the mature forest than with soils from the intermediate site although the increase for A. crispa was greater. Physical dimensions, current growth, and nutrient concentrations were greater when A. crispa was treated with the mature soil transfer compared with the intermediate soil transfer. Mycorrhizae which infected Alnus were predominantly a brown woody type, while other types accounted for greater relative mycorrhizal infection percentage on Populus. Insufficient quantities of mycorrhizal inoculum of suitable species, as well as low moisture and low nutrient conditions, may be factors limiting A. crispa colonization on primary disturbed sites in south central Alaska.     

The ecological distribution of mycorrhizas of Pinus uliginosa

On the site where the ground water table was during the year at the depth of 15 cm, I found on average 1,238 short mycorrhizal roots from 500 of soil samples, each of 500 g, about 70 % fragments were from living roots. There were four sub-subtypes: Aa, Ac, Bd and Cf and three subtypes of ecotrophic mycorrhizas: A, B and C. About 70.3 % was A subtype, 17.6 % of C and 7.1 % of B subtype.On the other stand where the ground water table was at 50 cm, there was a rich mycorrhizal spectrum. In the soil samples were on average 2,769 short mycorrhizal roots per sample; about 85 % were from living roots. I described there 11 mycorrhizal sub-subtypes: Aa, Ac, Ba, Bd, Ca, Cd, Cf, Fd, Fg, Ga and Ia. In samples were 65 % of A subtype, 3.2 % of B subtype, 9.8 % of C subtype, 4.2 % of F subtype, 15.0 % G subtype (Cenococcum graniforme) and 2.7 % of I subtype.No significant differences were found in the mycorrhizal subtype variety between young seedlings and older trees. The richest mycorrhizal association were found down to depth 10 to 15 cm. There were approximately 253 kg/ha of mycorrhizal fragments in the first stand and 464 kg/ha of mycorrhizas in the 15 cm surface soil layer in the sedond stand.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a semiarid copper mining area in Brazil

The occurrence of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in a copper mining area was investigated. Soil samples were collected from six sites at the Mineração Caraiba, Bahia State, northeastern Brazil, comprising: (1) a site that receives the waste product; (2) a site that receives low grade deposits; (3) the interface between the caatinga and site 1; (4) the surroundings of the industrial area; (5) the site for extracting topsoil for land filling; (6) the preserved caatinga. Thirty-two plant species were identified around the collection locations. Trap cultures were maintained in the greenhouse for 3 months, using bahia grass ( Paspalum notatum Flügge) as the host plant. Spores were extracted from soil and 21 AMF species (15 Glomus and one of each of Acaulospora, Archaeospora, Entrophospora, Gigaspora , Paraglomus and Scutellospora) were identified. In site 1, plants or AMF were not found during the dry season. Site 6, with native vegetation, had the highest number of plants and AMF species. The disturbed sites showed less plant diversification, with the community of AMF being quantitative and qualitatively affected by disturbance.     

The ectomycorrhizal community in urban linden trees and its relationship with soil properties

The aim of this study was to verify if root tip vitality and ectomycorrhization in 16 mature urban linden (Tilia vulgaris Hayne) trees, growing in roadside and park side sites, at moderately and strongly declining levels, could be associated with main soil properties. From the 738 soil and root samples collected over the four study periods, 52 ectomycorrhizae were recorded. The study demonstrated that the number of non-vital, vital non-mycorrhizal and mycorrhizal tips never differed significantly, neither among samples collected beneath the same tree nor among trees belonging to the same site and decline class, with the exception of the number of vital non-mycorrhizal tips showing significant differences among sites. Significant differences in ectomycorrhizal community composition between sites and between decline classes were found. This result may be related to the variation of the environmental variables as a whole rather than to the influence of a single or few factors, even if capability, permanent wilting point and available water are the soil parameters most significantly related to diversity in ectomycorrhizal community.     

Contrasts between subsurface microbial communities and their metabolic adaptation to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at a forested and an urban coal-tar disposal site

The abundance and distribution of microorganisms and their potential for mineralizing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in subsurface sediment samples at two geographically separate buried coal-tar sites. At a relatively undisturbed forested site in the northeastern United States, metabolic adaptation to the PAHs was evident: Radiolabeled naphthalene and phenanthrene were converted to ¹⁴CO₂ in core material from inside but not outside a plume of groundwater contamination. However, at the urban site in the midwestern United States these PAHs were mineralized in sediments from both contaminated and uncontaminated boreholes. Thus, clear qualitative evidence showing an adaptational response by the subsurface microbial community was not obtained at the urban site. Instead, subtler clues suggesting metabolic adaptation by subsurface microorganisms from the urban site were discerned by comparing lag periods and extents of ¹⁴CO₂ production from radiolabeled PAHs added to samples from contaminated and uncontaminated boreholes. Despite slightly higher PAH mineralization activity in contaminated borehole samples, p-hydroxybenzoate was mineralized equally in all samples from the urban site regardless of location. No striking trends in the abundances of actinomycetes, fungi, and either viable or total bacteria were encountered. However, colonies of the soil bacterium, Bacillus mycoides, were detected on enumeration plates of several samples from unsaturated and saturated zones in both urban boreholes. Furthermore, other common soil bacteria, Myxococcus xanthus and Chromobacterium violaceum, were identified in samples from the uncontaminated urban borehole. The occurrence of bacteria usually restricted to surface soil, combined with the observation of fragments of building materials in many of the core samples, suggested that past excavation and backfilling operations may have caused mixing of surface soil with subsurface materials at the urban site. We speculate that this mixing, as well as non-coal-tar-derived sources of PAHs, contributed to the PAH-mineralizing activity present in the sediment samples from the uncontaminated urban borehole.     

High potential of symbiotic interactions between native mycorrhizal fungi and the exotic tree Eucalyptus camaldulensis for phytostabilization of metal-contaminated arid soils

Waste dumps generated by mining activities contain heavy metals that are dispersed into areas leading to significant environmental contamination. The objectives of this study were (i) to survey native plants and their associated AM fungal communities from waste soils in a Moroccan mine site and (ii) to follow Eucalyptus growth in soil collected from the waste-mine. AM spores from native plant species were collected from the mining site and the surrounding uncontaminated areas were multiplied and inoculated onto Eucalyptus camaldulensis. The results showed that (i) the native plant species recorded in the waste did not show an active metal uptake, (ii) the selected native plant species are associated with AM mycorrhizal fungi and (iii) the use of AM fungi adapted to these drastic conditions can improve the growth of the fast-growing tree, E. camaldulensis and its tolerance to high soil Cu content. In conclusion, it is suggested that in order to define efficient low-cost phytostabilization processes, the use of native resources (i.e., mixtures of native mycorrhizal fungi) in combination with fast-growing tree species such as Eucalyptus, could be used to optimize the establishment of a permanent cover plant in contaminated areas.     

Modulation of the molecular size of humic substances by organic acids of the root exudates

Foliar phosphorus content and mycorrhizal infection of dipterocarp seedlings growing in a 61-year-old forest plantation (site A) and a selectively logged forest (site B) were determined. Mycorrhizal infection levels were high–83.7% forShorea bracteolata and 95.0% forS. leprosula at site A, and 77.8% forS. leprosula and 86.3% forS. curtisii at site B. The seedlings all had similar foliar phosphorus contents although available soil phosphorus at site B was half that at site A. Significant correlations were obtained between foliar phosphorus content and percentage mycorrhizal infection at site B only.     

Some Mediterranean plant species (Lavandula spp. and Thymus satureioides) act as potential ‘plant nurses’ for the early growth of Cupressus atlantica

The mycorrhizal status of several representative shrub species (Lavandula spp. and Thymus satureioides) in Moroccan semiarid ecosystems, was evaluated as well as their contribution to the mycorrhizal potential of the soil. Furthermore, the rhizosphere soils collected under these target species were tested for their influence on the growth of Cupressus atlantica, a tree species whose natural stands has declined in this area. Soil samples were collected from the rhizosphere of L. stoechas, L. dentata and of C. atlantica existing in the experimental area. Control samples were randomly collected from bare soil sites, away from plant influence.All the target species formed AM symbiosis and the extent of AM fungal colonization was not significantly different between plant species. No significant difference was detected between the total number of AM fungal spores of the bare soil and those recorded in the root zones of target species and C. atlantica. Three genera of AM fungi (Scutellospora, Glomus and Acaulospora) were present in the rhizospheres of the plant species and in the bare soil.The number of mycorrhizal propagules in soil originating from around the four target plant species was significantly higher than the one in the bare soil (Figure 1). The most probable number (MPN) of mycorrhizal propagules per 100 g of dry soil ranged from 7.82 (bare soil) to 179.7 (L. dentata and C. atlantica) and 244.5 (L. stoechas and T. satureioides). As the total number of spores was not different for the soil of different origins, the increase of the mycorrhizal soil infectivity (MSI) mainly resulted from larger AM mycelial networks that constituted the main source of AM fungal inoculum. In addition, this MSI enhancement was linked with changes in the functioning of soil microbial communities. In a glasshouse experiment, the growth of C. atlantica seedlings was significantly higher in the C. atlantica and in the shrub species soils than in the bare soil. Although the AM inoculum potential is not sufficient to ensure the development of forest trees in Mediterranean ecosystems, the use of plant nurses such as T. satureioides or Lavandula spp. could be of great interest to restore a self-sustaining vegetation cover to act against desertification.     

Dispersal of Spores of Mycorrhizal Fungi in Scats of Native Mammals in Tropical Forests of Northeastern Australia

One hundred and thirty-eight scat (faecal) samples from 17 mammal species native to forests of northeastern Queensland were examined for the presence of spores of both ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Spores of mycorrhizal fungi were found in 57 percent of scat samples representing 12 animal species (Aepyprymnus rufescens, Antechinus godmani, Bettongia tropica, Hypsiprymnodon moschatus, Isoodon macrourus, Melomys ceruinipes, Perameles nasuta, Rattus fuscipes, R. tunneyi, Thylogale stigmatica, Trichourur uulperula, Uromys caudimaculatus). Spores were absent in scats of Antechinus stuartii, Dasyurus hallucatus, Dendrolagus lumholtzi, Petaurus australis and Mesembriomys gouldii. Spores of ectomycorrhizal fungi occurred in 38 percent of scats, and all but one of these samples were from Eucalyptus-dominated sclerophyll forests. Based on the frequency and abundance of spores in scats, five mammals were considered active consumers of hypogeous mycorrhizal sporocarps in sclerophyll forests (A. rufescens, B. tropica, I. macrourus, P. nasuta, and U. caudimaculatus). Individual scats of these animals generally contained a range of distinctive spore types. Spores of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were found in low abundance in almost 40 percent of scat samples collected, from both sclerophyll forest and rainforest habitats. We suggest that the majoriry of these spores were acquired incidentally through ingestion of soil during foraging activities on the forest floor. Glasshouse inoculation experiments in which seedlings of Eucalyptus grandis and Sorghum bicolor were inoculated with scat material from several species of mammal demonstrated that the spores of ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi retained some viability and colonized the roots of host-plant seedlings. Insufficient information is known of the ecology of mycorrhizal fungi in Australia's tropical forests to speculate as to the implications of these findings for forest conservation and rehabilitation.     

Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in coastal dune plant communities II. Spore formation ofGlomus spp. predominates under geographically separated patches ofElymus mollis

Five study sites in Japan with pure patches ofElymus mollis near to the shoreline were chosen. Abundance of spore formation ofGlomus spp. underE. mollis patches were studied at four sites to understand the factors determining the development of VA mycorrhizal fungal communities at the edge of coastal sand dune vegetation. At each study site, eight soil samples from two soil depths were collected four times (three times for Niigata) during a year. Spores ofGlomus spp. predominated at every site, but species composition ofGlomus spp. differed from site to site. In a further experiment to measure the soil depth of the highest spore densities underE. mollis, the highest density was found at depths where rhizomes ofE. mollis were present.Contribution No. 119, Laboratories of Plant Pathology and Mycology, Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Tsukuba.     

The occrrence of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza in barley and wheat grown in some Danish soils with different fertilizer treatments

Summary Soil samples, roots and shoots were collected from barley crops at three locations which had received different combinations of N and P for 10 years, and from long-term fertilizer experiments on barley in a sandy soil and on barley and wheat in a loamy soil.Soils were analysed for available P by an anion exchange resin procedure, roots were examined for intensity of VAM infection, and shoots wee analysed for N and P.Vesicualr-arbuscular mycorrhizal infection was found at all locations. It was most abundant at the three locations with least soil-P and lightest at the two locations high in soil-P. Within loocations an inverse relation was found between soil-P level and intensity of infection. Infection was also intensity. by increasing N-fertilizer. Spore counts from selected samples correlated well with infection intensity. Shoot-P did not differ significantly between treatments in spite of significant differences in soil-P. This points to the significance of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhiza: a lower soil-P level accompanied by a higher infection intensity seem to counterbalance each other to a certain extent.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi associated with sedges on the Tibetan plateau

The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) status of nine dominant sedge species and the diversity of AM fungi in Tibetan grassland were surveyed in the autumn of 2003 and 2004. Most of the sedge species and ecotypes examined were mycorrhizal, but Carex moorcroftii and Kobresia pusilla were of doubtful AM status, and Kobresia humilis was facultatively mycorrhizal. This is the first report of the mycorrhizal status of eight of the nine sedge species examined. Intraradical vesicles and aseptate hyphae were the structures most frequently observed. Appressoria, coils, and arbuscules were found in the roots of a few sedge species. A strong negative correlation was found between soil organic matter content and the extent of mycorrhizal colonization. Using trap cultures, 26 species of AM fungi belonging to six genera, Glomus, Acaulospora, Paraglomus, Archaeospora, Pacispora, and Scutellospora, were isolated from the soil samples collected. The frequency of occurrence of different taxa of AM fungi varied greatly. Glomus and Acaulospora were the dominant genera, and Acaulospora scrobiculata was the most frequent and abundant species. The species richness of AM fungi was 2.73 in the study area. Species richness and diversity index differed among the sedge species but were not correlated with soil factors such as pH, available P, or organic matter content.     

Trypan blue as a fluorochrome for confocal laser scanning microscopy of arbuscular mycorrhizae in three mangroves

Roots of three mangroves, Acanthus ilicifolius, Ceriops tagal and Excoecaria agallocha, collected from forests of the Sundarbans of India were stained with trypan blue to observe arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization. Spores of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi isolated from rhizospheric soil, collected together with the root samples, also were stained for testing the suitability of the dye as a fluorochrome. Confocal laser scanning microscopy images were constructed. A. ilicifolius and E. agallocha exhibited “Arum” type colonization with highly branched arbuscules, whereas C. tagal showed “Paris” type association with clumped and collapsed arbuscules. We demonstrated that trypan blue is a suitable fluorochrome for staining arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spores, fungal hyphae, arbuscules and vesicles, which presumably have a considerable amount of surface chitin. It appears that as the integration of chitin into the fungal cell wall changes, its accessibility to trypan blue dye also changes.     

Mycorrhizal specificity does not limit the distribution of an endangered orchid species

What factors determine the distribution of a species is a central question in ecology and conservation biology. In general, the distribution of plant species is assumed to be controlled by dispersal or environmentally controlled recruitment. For plant species which are critically dependent on mycorrhizal symbionts for germination and seedling establishment, specificity in mycorrhizal associations and availability of suitable mycorrhizal fungi can be expected to have a major impact on successful colonization and establishment and thus ultimately on a species distribution. We combined seed germination experiments with soil analyses and fungal assessments using 454 amplicon pyrosequencing to test the relative importance of dispersal limitation, mycorrhizal availability and local growth conditions on the distribution of the orchid species Liparis loeselii, which, despite being widely distributed, is rare and endangered in Europe. We compared local soil conditions, seed germination and mycorrhizal availability in the soil between locations in northern Belgium and France where L. loeselii occurs naturally and locations where conditions appear suitable, but where adults of the species are absent. Our results indicated that mycorrhizal communities associating with L. loeselii varied among sites and plant life cycle stages, but the observed variations did not affect seed germination, which occurred regardless of current L. loeselii presence and was significantly affected by soil moisture content. These results indicate that L. loeselii is a mycorrhizal generalist capable of opportunistically associating with a variety of fungal partners to induce seed germination. They also indicate that availability of fungal associates is not necessarily the determining factor driving the distribution of mycorrhizal plant species.     

Ecophysiology of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with Pinus spp. in low rainfall areas of Western Australia

As a potential means of monitoring functional properties of plantations of Pinus pinaster and Pinus radiata established as part of land rehabilitation in the wheatbelt of Western Australia, we examined aspects of the ecophysiology of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with tree roots. A single species of ectomycorrhizal fungi, Rhizopogon roseolus, dominated the mycorrhizal flora. Sporocarps of Rhizopogon roseolus appeared with the onset of winter rains in May, increased in number and total biomass to peak in September, and decreased to negligible levels at the beginning of the summer drought in December. A greater number of sporocarps, and consequently a greater biomass of sporocarp tissue, was associated with roots of P. radiata than P. pinaster. A similar seasonal pattern of mycorrhizal root infection was determined by counts of individual ectomycorrhizal root tips from bimonthly collection of soil core samples. At the low rainfall (380 mm annually) site, greater numbers of live root tips were more strongly correlated with soil moisture than organic matter content of soil. In contrast, in wetter areas closer to Perth (800 mm annually), highest numbers of active root tips and greatest amounts of organic matter were both within 0–10 cm depths. Results suggest an overriding importance of soil moisture rather than nutrient status of the soil as the key determinant of spatial and temporal distribution of the fungus. Results from a range of assays determining enzyme activity of soil (protease, phosphomonoesterase, cellulase, L-asparaginase, L-glutaminase and β-glucosidase) surrounding mycorrhizal roots indicated seasonal patterns to be similar to those described for reproductive activity of mycorrhizal fungi. Factors responsible for patterns of seasonal activity and distribution of ectomycorrhizal roots are discussed in terms of managing systems in order to maximise tree growth and form while effectively restoring soil water balance.     

The impact of wildfire on vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and their potential to influence the re-establishment of post-fire plant communities

Wildfires are a typical event in many Australian plant communities. Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi are important for plant growth in many communities, especially on infertile soils, yet few studies have examined the impact of wildfire on the infectivity of VAM fungi. This study took the opportunity offered by a wildfire to compare the infectivity and abundance of spores of VAM fungi from: (i) pre-fire and post-fire sites, and (ii) post-fire burned and unburned sites. Pre-fire samples had been taken in May 1990 and mid-December 1990 as part of another study. A wildfire of moderate intensity burned the site in late December 1990. Post-fire samples were taken from burned and unburned areas immediately after the fire and 6 months after the fire. A bioassay was used to examine the infectivity of VAM fungi. The post-fire soil produced significantly less VAM infection than the pre-fire soil. However, no difference was observed between colonization of plant roots by VAM fungi in soil taken from post-fire burned and adjacent unburned plots. Soil samples taken 6 months after the fire produced significantly more VAM than corresponding soil samples taken one year earlier. Spore numbers were quantified be wet-sieving and decanting of 100-g, air-dried soil subsamples and microscopic examination. For the most abundant spore type, spore numbers were significantly lower immediately post-fire. However, no significant difference in spore numbers was observed between post-fire burned and unburned plots. Six months after the fire, spore numbers were the same as the corresponding samples taken 1 year earlier. All plants appearing in the burned site resprouted from underground organs. All post-fire plant species recorded to have mycorrhizal associations before the fire had the same associations after the fire, except for species of Conospermum (Proteaceae), which lacked internal vesicles in cortical cells in the post-fire samples.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal application to improve growth and tolerance of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) plants grown in saline soil

A pot experiment was conducted to examine the effects of three different arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, Glomus mosseae, G. deserticola and Gigaspora gergaria, on growth and nutrition of wheat (Triticum aestivium L. cv. Henta) plants grown in saline soil. Under saline condition, mycorrhizal inoculation significantly increased growth responses, nutrient contents, acid and alkaline phosphatases, proline and total soluble protein of wheat plants compared to non-mycorrhizal ones. Those stimulations were related to the metabolic activity of the each mycorrhizal fungus. The localization of succinate dehydrogenase “SDH” (as a vital stain for the metabolically active fungus) in the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi was variable. In general, mycorrhizal shoot plant tissues had significantly higher concentrations of P, N, K and Mg but lower Na concentration than those of non-mycorrhizal plants. In saline soil, growth and nutrition of wheat plants showed a high degree of dependency on mycorrhizal fungi (especially G. mosseae). The use of the nitroblue tetrazolium chloride method as a vital stain for SDH activity showed that all the structures of mycorrhizal infections in the wheat plant estimated by the trypan blue staining (non-vital stain) were not metabolically active. Interestingly, the reduction in Na uptake along with associated increases in P, N and Mg absorption and high proline, phosphatase activities and chlorophyll content in the mycorrhizal plants could be important for salt alleviation in plants growing in saline soils.     

Glomalean mycorrhizal fungi from tropical Australia

 A comparison of different methods for isolation of vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi into open-pot cultures was undertaken as part of a study of the diversity of these fungi. Four different isolation techniques using spores separated from soil, soil trap cultures, root samples, or transplanted seedlings grown in intact soil cores were used to obtain as many fungi as possible from each site. Isolation methods were compared using paired samples from the same locations within natural (savanna, rocky hill, wetland, rainforest) and disturbed (minesite) habitats in a seasonally dry tropical region in the Northern Territory of Australia. There were large differences in (i) the efficiency (rate of increase in mycorrhizal colonisation), (ii) the proportion of successful cultures, (iii) fungal diversity (number of fungal species in each culture) and (iv) specificity (identity of species isolated) between these four procedures. However, the less-efficient procedures generally resulted in a higher proportion of cultures of one fungus, which could be used without further isolation steps. Most species of Scutellospora, Acaulospora and Gigaspora were obtained primarily from field-collected spores, but only 50% of these culture attempts were successful. Spores from these initial cultures produced mycorrhizas much more rapidly and successfully when used to start second-generation cultures. Several species of fungi, rarely recovered as living spores from field soils, were dominant in many trap cultures started from soil or roots. Most of these fungi were Glomus species, that were first distinguished by colonisation patterns in roots and eventually identified after sporulation in second- or third-generation trap cultures. These experiments demonstrated that glomalean fungi in the habitats sampled belonged to two functional categories, based on whether or not spores were important propagules. The "non-sporulating" fungi were dominant in many trap cultures, which suggests that these fungi had higher total inoculum levels in soils than other fungi. Pot-culturing methods provided additional information on fungal diversity which complemented spore occurrence data obtained using the same soil samples and provided valuable new information about the biology of these fungi. Accepted: 26 December 1998