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1.
Stomatal guard cells have proven to be an attractive system for dissecting the mechanisms of stimulus-response coupling in plants. In this review we focus on the intracellular signal transduction pathways by which extracellular signals bring about closure and opening of the stomatal pore. It is proposed that guard cell signal transduction pathways may be organized into functional arrays or signalling cassettes that contain elements common to a number of converging signalling pathways. The purpose of these signalling cassettes may be to funnel extracellular signals down onto the ion transporters that control the fluxes of ions that underlie stomatal movements. Evidence is emerging that specificity in guard cell signalling may be, in part, encoded in complex spatio-temporal patterns of increases in the concentration of cytosolic-free calcium ([Ca2+]cyt). It is suggested that oscillations in [Ca2+]cyt may generate calcium signatures that encode information concerning the stimulus type and strength. New evidence is presented that suggests that these calcium signatures may integrate information when many stimuli are present.  相似文献   

2.
Cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) and heterotrimeric G‐proteins are universal eukaryotic signaling elements. In plant guard cells, extracellular calcium (Cao) is as strong a stimulus for stomatal closure as the phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA), but underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we report that the sole Arabidopsis heterotrimeric Gβ subunit, AGB1, is required for four guard cell Cao responses: induction of stomatal closure; inhibition of stomatal opening; [Ca2+]cyt oscillation; and inositol 1,4,5‐trisphosphate (InsP3) production. Stomata in wild‐type Arabidopsis (Col) and in mutants of the canonical Gα subunit, GPA1, showed inhibition of stomatal opening and promotion of stomatal closure by Cao. By contrast, stomatal movements of agb1 mutants and agb1/gpa1 double‐mutants, as well as those of the agg1agg2 Gγ double‐mutant, were insensitive to Cao. These behaviors contrast with ABA‐regulated stomatal movements, which involve GPA1 and AGB1/AGG3 dimers, illustrating differential partitioning of G‐protein subunits among stimuli with similar ultimate impacts, which may facilitate stimulus‐specific encoding. AGB1 knockouts retained reactive oxygen species and NO production, but lost YC3.6‐detected [Ca2+]cyt oscillations in response to Cao, initiating only a single [Ca2+]cyt spike. Experimentally imposed [Ca2+]cyt oscillations restored stomatal closure in agb1. Yeast two‐hybrid and bimolecular complementation fluorescence experiments revealed that AGB1 interacts with phospholipase Cs (PLCs), and Cao induced InsP3 production in Col but not in agb1. In sum, G‐protein signaling via AGB1/AGG1/AGG2 is essential for Cao‐regulation of stomatal apertures, and stomatal movements in response to Cao apparently require Ca2+‐induced Ca2+ release that is likely dependent on Gβγ interaction with PLCs leading to InsP3 production.  相似文献   

3.
Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) signalling shares several signal components with abscisic acid (ABA) signalling in guard cells. Cyclic adenosine 5′‐diphosphoribose (cADPR) and cyclic guanosine 3′,5′‐monophosphate (cGMP) are second messengers in ABA‐induced stomatal closure. In order to clarify involvement of cADPR and cGMP in MeJA‐induced stomatal closure in Arabidopsis thaliana (Col‐0), we investigated effects of an inhibitor of cADPR synthesis, nicotinamide (NA), and an inhibitor of cGMP synthesis, LY83583 (LY, 6‐anilino‐5,8‐quinolinedione), on MeJA‐induced stomatal closure. Treatment with NA and LY inhibited MeJA‐induced stomatal closure. NA inhibited MeJA‐induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and nitric oxide (NO) production in guard cells. NA and LY suppressed transient elevations elicited by MeJA in cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) in guard cells. These results suggest that cADPR and cGMP positively function in [Ca2+]cyt elevation in MeJA‐induced stomatal closure, are signalling components shared with ABA‐induced stomatal closure in Arabidopsis, and that cADPR is required for MeJA‐induced ROS accumulation and NO production in Arabidopsis guard cells.  相似文献   

4.
Stomatal closure in response to abscisic acid depends on mechanisms that are mediated by intracellular [Ca2+] ([Ca2+]i), and also on mechanisms that are independent of [Ca2+]i in guard cells. In this study, we addressed three important questions with respect to these two predicted pathways in Arabidopsis thaliana. (i) How large is the relative abscisic acid (ABA)‐induced stomatal closure response in the [Ca2+]i‐elevation‐independent pathway? (ii) How do ABA‐insensitive mutants affect the [Ca2+]i‐elevation‐independent pathway? (iii) Does ABA enhance (prime) the Ca2+ sensitivity of anion and inward‐rectifying K+ channel regulation? We monitored stomatal responses to ABA while experimentally inhibiting [Ca2+]i elevations and clamping [Ca2+]i to resting levels. The absence of [Ca2+]i elevations was confirmed by ratiometric [Ca2+]i imaging experiments. ABA‐induced stomatal closure in the absence of [Ca2+]i elevations above the physiological resting [Ca2+]i showed only approximately 30% of the normal stomatal closure response, and was greatly slowed compared to the response in the presence of [Ca2+]i elevations. The ABA‐insensitive mutants ost1‐2, abi2‐1 and gca2 showed partial stomatal closure responses that correlate with [Ca2+]i‐dependent ABA signaling. Interestingly, patch‐clamp experiments showed that exposure of guard cells to ABA greatly enhances the ability of cytosolic Ca2+ to activate S‐type anion channels and down‐regulate inward‐rectifying K+ channels, providing strong evidence for a Ca2+ sensitivity priming hypothesis. The present study demonstrates and quantifies an attenuated and slowed ABA response when [Ca2+]i elevations are directly inhibited in guard cells. A minimal model is discussed, in which ABA enhances (primes) the [Ca2+]i sensitivity of stomatal closure mechanisms.  相似文献   

5.
We report that two mitogen‐activated protein kinases (MAPKs), MPK9 and MPK12, positively regulate abscisic acid (ABA)‐induced stomatal closure in Arabidopsis thaliana. Yeast elicitor (YEL) induced stomatal closure accompanied by intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) oscillation. In this study, we examined whether these two MAP kinases are involved in YEL‐induced stomatal closure using MAPKK inhibitors, PD98059 and U0126, and MAPK mutants, mpk9, mpk12 and mpk9 mpk12. Both PD98059 and U0126 inhibited YEL‐induced stomatal closure. YEL induced stomatal closure in the mpk9 and mpk12 mutants but not in the mpk9 mpk12 mutant, suggesting that a MAPK cascade involving MPK9 and MPK12 functions in guard cell YEL signalling. However, YEL induced extracellular ROS production, intracellular ROS accumulation and cytosolic alkalisation in the mpk9, mpk12 and mpk9 mpk12 mutants. YEL induced [Ca2+]cyt oscillations in both wild type and mpk9 mpk12 mutant. These results suggest that MPK9 and MPK12 function redundantly downstream of extracellular ROS production, intracellular ROS accumulation, cytosolic alkalisation and [Ca2+]cyt oscillation in YEL‐induced stomatal closure in Arabidopsis guard cells and are shared with ABA signalling.  相似文献   

6.
Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) induces stomatal closure similar to abscisic acid (ABA), and MeJA signaling in guard cells shares some signal components with ABA signaling. As part of this process, MeJA as well as ABA induce the elevation and oscillation of cytosolic free-calcium concentrations ([Ca2+]cyt) in guard cells. While abscisic acid-induced [Ca2+]cyt oscillation has been extensively studied, MeJA-induced [Ca2+]cyt oscillation is less well understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of K252a (a broad-range protein kinase inhibitor) and okadaic acid (OA, a protein phosphatase 1 and 2A inhibitor) on MeJA-induced [Ca2+]cyt oscillation in guard cells of Arabidopsis thaliana ecotype Columbia expressing the Ca2+ reporter yellow cameleon 3.6. The protein kinase inhibitor K252a abolished MeJA-induced stomatal closure and reduced MeJA-elicited [Ca2+]cyt oscillation. The protein phosphatase inhibitor OA, on the other hand, did not inhibit these processes. These results suggest that MeJA signaling involves activation of K252a-sensitive protein kinases upstream of [Ca2+]cyt oscillation but not activation of an OA-sensitive protein phosphatase in guard cells of A. thaliana ecotype Columbia.  相似文献   

7.
Romano LA  Jacob T  Gilroy S  Assmann SM 《Planta》2000,211(2):209-217
 The inward K+ channels (IKin) of guard cells are inhibited upon application of abscisic acid (ABA). It has been postulated that IKin inhibition requires an elevation in cytosolic free Ca2+ levels ([Ca2+]c) because: (i) experimental increases in [Ca2+] c can mimic the ABA effect, and; (ii) ABA can trigger an elevation of [Ca2+]c in guard cells. However, not all guard cells respond to ABA with a [Ca2+]c increase, and the magnitude of the increases that do occur is variable. Therefore, an obligate role for Ca2+ in the regulation of downstream effectors of ABA response, such as the IKin channels, remains in question. In this study, we developed a methodology for simultaneous patch clamping and confocal ratiometric Ca2+ imaging of Vicia faba L. guard-cell protoplasts. This allowed us to directly assess the relationship between ABA-induced changes in [Ca2+]c and IKin inhibition. In the presence of extracellular Ca2+, the extent of [Ca2+]c elevation correlated with the extent of IKin inhibition. However, upon chelation of either extracellular Ca2+, [Ca2+]c, or both, extracellular Ca2+ and [Ca2+]c, [Ca2+]c elevation did not occur in response to ABA yet IKin currents were still strongly inhibited. These data illustrate that Ca2+-independent regulation is involved in ABA-inhibition of stomatal opening processes. Received: 17 September 1999 / Accepted: 26 October 1999  相似文献   

8.
Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and abscisic acid (ABA) signalling cascades share several signalling components in guard cells. We previously showed that two guard cell‐preferential mitogen‐activated protein kinases (MAPKs), MPK9 and MPK12, positively regulate ABA signalling in Arabidopsis thaliana. In this study, we examined whether these two MAP kinases function in MeJA signalling using genetic mutants for MPK9 and MPK12 combined with a pharmacological approach. MeJA induced stomatal closure in mpk9‐1 and mpk12‐1 single mutants as well as wild‐type plants, but not in mpk9‐1 mpk12‐1 double mutants. Consistently, the MAPKK inhibitor PD98059 inhibited the MeJA‐induced stomatal closure in wild‐type plants. MeJA elicited reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and cytosolic alkalisation in guard cells of the mpk9‐1, mpk12‐1 and mpk9‐1 mpk12‐1 mutants, as well in wild‐type plants. Furthermore, MeJA triggered elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) in the mpk9‐1 mpk12‐1 double mutant as well as wild‐type plants. Activation of S‐type anion channels by MeJA was impaired in mpk9‐1 mpk12‐1. Together, these results indicate that MPK9 and MPK12 function upstream of S‐type anion channel activation and downstream of ROS production, cytosolic alkalisation and [Ca2+]cyt elevation in guard cell MeJA signalling, suggesting that MPK9 and MPK12 are key regulators mediating both ABA and MeJA signalling in guard cells.  相似文献   

9.
Plant guard cells gate CO2 uptake and transpirational water loss through stomatal pores. As a result of decades of experimental investigation, there is an abundance of information on the involvement of specific proteins and secondary messengers in the regulation of stomatal movements and on the pairwise relationships between guard cell components. We constructed a multi-level dynamic model of guard cell signal transduction during light-induced stomatal opening and of the effect of the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) on this process. The model integrates into a coherent network the direct and indirect biological evidence regarding the regulation of seventy components implicated in stomatal opening. Analysis of this signal transduction network identified robust cross-talk between blue light and ABA, in which [Ca2+]c plays a key role, and indicated an absence of cross-talk between red light and ABA. The dynamic model captured more than 1031 distinct states for the system and yielded outcomes that were in qualitative agreement with a wide variety of previous experimental results. We obtained novel model predictions by simulating single component knockout phenotypes. We found that under white light or blue light, over 60%, and under red light, over 90% of all simulated knockouts had similar opening responses as wild type, showing that the system is robust against single node loss. The model revealed an open question concerning the effect of ABA on red light-induced stomatal opening. We experimentally showed that ABA is able to inhibit red light-induced stomatal opening, and our model offers possible hypotheses for the underlying mechanism, which point to potential future experiments. Our modelling methodology combines simplicity and flexibility with dynamic richness, making it well suited for a wide class of biological regulatory systems.  相似文献   

10.
Water loss from plants is determined by the aperture of stomatal pores in the leaf epidermis, set by the level of vacuolar accumulation of potassium salt, and hence volume and turgor, of a pair of guard cells. Regulation of ion fluxes across the tonoplast, the key to regulation of stomatal aperture, can only be studied by tracer flux measurements. There are two transport systems in the tonoplast. The first is a Ca2+-activated channel, inhibited by phenylarsine oxide (PAO), responsible for the release of vacuolar K+(Rb+) in response to the “drought” hormone, abscisic acid (ABA). This channel is sensitive to pressure, down-regulated at low turgor and up-regulated at high turgor, providing a system for turgor regulation. ABA induces a transient stimulation of vacuolar ion efflux, during which the flux tracks the ion content (volume, turgor), suggesting ABA reduces the set-point of a control system. The second system, which is PAO-insensitive, is responsible for an ion flux from vacuole to cytoplasm associated with inward water flow following a hypo-osmotic transfer. It is suggested that this involves an aquaporin as sensor, and perhaps also as responder; deformation of the aquaporin may render it ion-permeable, or, alternatively, the deformed aquaporin may signal to an associated ion channel, activating it. Treatment with inhibitors of aquaporins, HgCl2 or silver sulfadiazine, produces a large transient increase in ion release from the vacuole, also PAO-insensitive. It is suggested that this involves the same aquaporin, either rendered directly ion-permeable, or signalling to activate an associated ion channel.  相似文献   

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