Nitrogen yields from undisturbed watersheds in the Americas

Yields of total fixed nitrogen and nitrogen fractions are summarized for thirty-one watersheds in which anthropogenic disturbance of the nitrogen cycle, either through land use or atmospheric deposition, is negligible or slight. These yields are taken as representative of background conditions over a broad range of watershed areas, elevations, and vegetation types. The data set focuses on watersheds of the American tropics, but also includes information on the Gambia River (Africa) and some small watersheds in the Sierra Nevada of California. For the tropical watersheds, total nitrogen yield averages 5.1 kg ha^–1 y^–1. On average, 30% of the total is particulate and 70% is dissolved. Of the dissolved fraction, an average of 50% is organic and 50% is inorganic, of which 20% is ammonium and 80% is nitrate. Yields are substantially lower than previously estimated for background conditions. Yields of all nitrogen fractions are strongly related to runoff, which also explains a large percentage of variance in yield of total nitrogen (r²=0.85). For total nitrogen and nitrogen fractions, yield increases at about two-thirds the rate of runoff; concentration decreases as runoff increases. There is a secondary but significant positive relationship between elevation and yield of DIN. Ratios DON/TDN and PN/TN both are related to watershed area rather than runoff; DON/TDN decreases and PN/TN increases toward higher stream orders. The analysis suggests for tropical watersheds the existence of mechanisms promoting strong homeostasis in the yield of N and its fractions for a given moisture regime, as well as predictable downstream change in proportionate representation N fractions. Yields and concentrations for small tropical watersheds are much larger than for the few temperate ones with which comparisons are possible.     

Dissolved and particulate nutrient flux from three adjacent agricultural watersheds: A five-year study

Fluxes of dissolved and particulate nitrogen (N) and phosphorus(P) from three adjacent watersheds were quantified with ahigh-resolution sampling program over a five-year period. The watershedsvary by an order of magnitude in area (12,875, 7968 and 1206 ha), and inall three watersheds intensive agriculture comprises > 90% ofland. Annual fluxes of dissolved N and P per unit watershed area (exportcoefficients) varied 2X among watersheds, and patterns were notdirectly related to watershed size. Over the five-year period, meanannual flux of soluble reactive P (SRP) was 0.583 kg P ·ha^–1 · yr^–1 from the smallestwatershed and 0.295 kg P · ha^–1 ·yr^–1 from the intermediate-sized watershed, which hadthe lowest SRP flux. Mean annual flux of nitrate was 20.53 kg N ·ha^–1 · yr^–1 in the smallestwatershed and 44.77 kg N · ha^–1 ·yr^–1 in the intermediate-sized watershed, which had thehighest nitrate flux. As a consequence, the export ratio of dissolvedinorganic N to SRP varied from 80 (molar) in the smallest watershed to335 in the intermediate-sized watershed. Because most N was exported asnitrate, differences among watersheds in total N flux were similar tothose for nitrate. Hence, the total N:P export ratio was 42(molar) for the smallest watershed and 109 for the intermediate-sizedwatershed. In contrast, there were no clear differences among watershedsin the export coefficients of particulate N, P, or carbon, even though> 50% of total P was exported as particulate P in allwatersheds. All nutrient fractions were exported at higher rates in wetyears than in dry years, but precipitation-driven variability in exportcoefficients was greater for particulate fractions than for dissolvedfractions.Examination of hydrological regimes showed that, for all nutrientfractions, most export occurred during stormflow. However, theproportion of nitrate flux exported as baseflow was much greater thanthe proportion of SRP flux exported as baseflow, for all threewatersheds (25–37% of nitrate exported as baseflow vs.3–13% of SRP exported as baseflow). In addition, baseflowcomprised a greater proportion of total discharge in theintermediate-sized watershed (43.7% of total discharge) than theother two watersheds (29.3 and 30.1%). Thus, higher nitrateexport coefficients in the intermediate-sized watershed may haveresulted from the greater contribution of baseflow in this watershed.Other factors potentially contributing to higher nitrate exportcoefficients in this watershed may be a thicker layer of loess soils anda lower proportion of riparian forest than the other watersheds. Theamong-watershed variability in SRP concentrations and exportcoefficients remains largely unexplained, and might represent theminimum expected variation among similar agriculturalwatersheds.     

Urban influences on the nitrogen cycle in Puerto Rico

Anthropogenic actions are altering fluxes of nitrogen (N) in the biosphere at unprecedented rates. Efforts to study these impacts have concentrated in the Northern hemisphere, where experimental data are available. In tropical developing countries, however, experimental studies are lacking. This paper summarizes available data and assesses the impacts of human activities on N fluxes in Puerto Rico, a densely populated Caribbean island that has experienced drastic landscape transformations over the last century associated with rapid socioeconomic changes. N yield calculations conducted in several watersheds of different anthropogenic influences revealed that disturbed watersheds export more N per unit area than undisturbed forested watersheds. Export of N from urban watersheds ranged from 4.8 kg ha^?1 year^?1 in the Río Bayamón watershed to 32.9 kg ha^?1 year^?1 in the highly urbanized Río Piedras watershed and 33.3 kg ha^?1 year^?1 in the rural-agricultural Río Grande de Añasco watershed. Along with land use, mean annual runoff explained most of the variance in fluvial N yield. Wastewater generated in the San Juan Metropolitan Area receives primary treatment before it is discharged into the Atlantic Ocean. These discharges are N-rich and export large amounts of N to the ocean at a rate of about 140 kg ha^?1 year^?1. Data on wet deposition of inorganic N ( $\hbox{NH}_{4}^{+}+\hbox{NO}_{3}^{-}Anthropogenic actions are altering fluxes of nitrogen (N) in the biosphere at unprecedented rates. Efforts to study these impacts have concentrated in the Northern hemisphere, where experimental data are available. In tropical developing countries, however, experimental studies are lacking. This paper summarizes available data and assesses the impacts of human activities on N fluxes in Puerto Rico, a densely populated Caribbean island that has experienced drastic landscape transformations over the last century associated with rapid socioeconomic changes. N yield calculations conducted in several watersheds of different anthropogenic influences revealed that disturbed watersheds export more N per unit area than undisturbed forested watersheds. Export of N from urban watersheds ranged from 4.8 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in the Río Bayamón watershed to 32.9 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in the highly urbanized Río Piedras watershed and 33.3 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ in the rural-agricultural Río Grande de A?asco watershed. Along with land use, mean annual runoff explained most of the variance in fluvial N yield. Wastewater generated in the San Juan Metropolitan Area receives primary treatment before it is discharged into the Atlantic Ocean. These discharges are N-rich and export large amounts of N to the ocean at a rate of about 140 kg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Data on wet deposition of inorganic N () suggest that rates of atmospheric N deposition are increasing in the pristine forests of Puerto Rico. Stationary and mobile sources of NO _x (NO+NO₂) and N₂O generated in the large urban centers may be responsible for this trend. Comprehensive measurements are required in Puerto Rico to quantitatively characterize the local N cycle. More research is required to assess rates of atmospheric N deposition, N fixation in natural and human-dominated landscapes, N-balance associated with food and feed trade, and denitrification.     

Nitrogen Export from Forested Watersheds in the Oregon Coast Range: The Role of N<Subscript>2</Subscript>-fixing Red Alder

Variations in plant community composition across the landscape can influence nutrient retention and loss at the watershed scale. A striking example of plant species importance is the influence of N₂-fixing red alder (Alnus rubra) on nutrient cycling in the forests of the Pacific Northwest. To understand the influence of red alder on watershed nutrient export, we studied the chemistry of 26 small watershed streams within the Salmon River basin of the Oregon Coast Range. Nitrate and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) concentrations were positively related to broadleaf cover (dominated by red alder: 94% of basal area), particularly when near-coastal sites were excluded (r ² = 0.65 and 0.68 for nitrate-N and DON, respectively). Nitrate and DON concentrations were more strongly related to broadleaf cover within entire watersheds than broadleaf cover within the riparian area alone, which indicates that leaching from upland alder stands plays an important role in watershed nitrogen (N) export. Nitrate dominated over DON in hydrologic export (92% of total dissolved N), and nitrate and DON concentrations were strongly correlated. Annual N export was highly variable among watersheds (2.4–30.8 kg N ha^–1 y^–1), described by a multiple linear regression combining broadleaf and mixed broadleaf–conifer cover (r² = 0.74). Base cation concentrations were positively related to nitrate concentrations, which suggests that nitrate leaching increases cation losses. Our findings provide evidence for strong control of ecosystem function by a single plant species, where leaching from N saturated red alder stands is a major control on N export from these coastal watersheds.     

Raphidophyceans on the coasts of Mexico

The annual loads of C,N,P, silicate, total suspended sediment (mass) and their yields (mass area^?1) were estimated for six watersheds of the Mississippi River Basin (MRB) using water quality and water discharge records for 1973 to 1994. The highest load of suspended sediments is from the Missouri watershed (58 mt km² yr^?1), which is also the largest among the six major sub-basins. The Ohio watershed delivers the largest load of water (38%). The Upper Mississippi has the largest total nitrogen load (32%) and yield (1120 kg TN km² yr^?1). The loading of organic carbon, total phosphorus and silicate from the Upper Mississippi and Ohio watersheds are similar and relatively high (range 2.1–2.5, 0.068–0.076, and 0.8–1.1 mt km² yr^?1, respectively). The yields of suspended sediments, total phosphorus, total nitrogen, and silicate from the Lower Mississippi watershed are disproportionately the highest for its area, which is the smallest of all the watersheds and has the weakest monitoring network. The loading from the Red and Arkansas watersheds are of lesser importance than the others for most parameters investigated. The total nitrogen loading to coastal waters increased an additional 150% since the early 1900s, and is now dominated by loads from the Upper Mississippi watershed, rather than the previously dominant Ohio watershed. An analysis of trends for 1973–1994 suggests variability among years, rather than uni-directional change for most variables among 11 key stations. Explanatory relationships were established or confirmed to describe TN and TP loadings in terms of the now largely human-created landscape arising mostly over the last 150 years.     

Regional analysis of inorganic nitrogen yield and retention in high-elevation ecosystems of the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains

Yields and retention of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN: NO₃ ^– + NH₄ ⁺) and nitrate concentrations in surface runoff are summarized for 28 high elevation watersheds in the Sierra Nevada of California and Rocky Mountains of Wyoming and Colorado. Catchments ranged in elevation from 2475 to 3603 m and from 15 to 1908 ha in area. Soil cover varied from 5% to nearly 97% of total catchment area. Runoff from these snow-dominated catchments ranged from 315 to 1265 mm per year. In the Sierra Nevada, annual volume-weighted mean (AVWM) nitrate concentrations ranged from 0.5 to 13 M (overall average 5.4 M), and peak concentrations measured during snowmelt ranged from 1.0 to 38 M. Nitrate levels in the Rocky Mountain watersheds were about twice those in the Sierra Nevada; average AVWM NO₃ ^– was 9.4 M and snowmelt peaks ranged from 15 to 50 M. Mean DIN loading to Rocky Mountain watersheds, 3.6 kg ha^–1 yr^–1, was double the average measured for Sierra Nevada watersheds, 1.8 kg ha^–1 yr^–1. DIN yield in the Sierra Nevada, 0.69 kg ha^–1 yr^–1, was about 60% that measured in the Rocky Mountains, 1.1 kg ha^–1 yr^–1. Net inorganic N retention in Sierra Nevada catchments was 1.2 kg ha^–1 yr^–1 and represented about 55% of annual DIN loading. DIN retention in the Rocky Mountain catchments was greater in absolute terms, 2.5 kg ha^–1 yr^–1, and as a percentage of DIN loading, 72%.A correlation analysis using DIN yield, DIN retention and surface water nitrate concentrations as dependent variables and eight environmental features (catchment elevation, slope, aspect, roughness, area, runoff, soil cover and DIN loading) as independent variables was conducted. For the Sierra Nevada, elevation and soil cover had significant (p > 0.1) Pearson product moment correlations with catchment DIN yield, AVWM and peak snowmelt nitrate concentrations and DIN retention rates. Log-linear regression models using soil cover as the independent variable explained 82% of the variation in catchment DIN retention, 92% of the variability in AVWM nitrate and 85% of snowmelt peak NO₃ ^–. In the Rocky Mountains, soil cover was significantly (p < 0.05) correlated with DIN yield, AVWM NO₃ ^– and DIN retention expressed as a percentage of DIN loading (%DIN retention). Catchment mean slope and terrain roughness were positively correlated with steam nitrate concentrations and negatively related to %DIN retention. About 91% of the variation in DIN yield and 79% of the variability in AVWM NO₃ ^– were explained by log-linear models based on soil cover. A log-linear regression based on soil cover explained 90% of the variation of %DIN retention in the Rocky Mountains.     

Does Anthropogenic Nitrogen Enrichment Increase Organic Nitrogen Concentrations in Runoff from Forested and Human-dominated Watersheds?

Although the effects of anthropogenic nitrogen (N) inputs on the dynamics of inorganic N in watersheds have been studied extensively, “the influence of N enrichment on organic N loss” is not as well understood. We compiled and synthesized data on surface water N concentrations from 348 forested and human-dominated watersheds with a range of N loads (from less than 100 to 7,100 kg N km⁻² y⁻¹) to evaluate the effects of N loading via atmospheric deposition, fertilization, and wastewater on dissolved organic N (DON) concentrations. Our results indicate that, on average, DON accounts for half of the total dissolved N (TDN) concentrations from forested watersheds, but it accounts for a smaller fraction of TDN in runoff from urban and agricultural watersheds with higher N loading. A significant but weak correlation (r ² = 0.06) suggests that N loading has little influence on DON concentrations in forested watersheds. This result contrasts with observations from some plot-scale N fertilization studies and suggests that variability in watershed characteristics and climate among forested watersheds may be a more important control on DON losses than N loading from atmospheric sources. Mean DON concentrations were positively correlated, however, with N load across the entire land-use gradient (r ² = 0.37, P < 0.01), with the highest concentrations found in agricultural and urban watersheds. We hypothesize that both direct contributions of DON from wastewater and agricultural amendments and indirect transformations of inorganic N to organic N represent important sources of DON to surface waters in human-dominated watersheds. We conclude that DON is an important component of N loss in surface waters draining forested and human-dominated watersheds and suggest several research priorities that may be useful in elucidating the role of N enrichment in watershed DON dynamics.     

Biogeochemistry of unpolluted forested watersheds in the Oregon Cascades: temporal patterns of precipitation and stream nitrogen fluxes

We analyzed long-term organic and inorganic nitrogen inputs and outputs in precipitation and streamwater in six watersheds at the H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest in the central Cascade Mountains of Oregon. Total bulk N deposition, averaging 1.6 to 2.0 kg N ha^–1 yr^–1, is low compared to other sites in the United States and little influenced by anthropogenic N sources. Streamwater N export is also low, averaging <1 kg ha^–1 yr^–1. DON is the predominant form of N exported from all watersheds, followed by PON, NH₄-N, and NO₃-N. Total annual stream discharge was a positive predictor of annual DON output in all six watersheds, suggesting that DON export is related to regional precipitation. In contrast, annual discharge was a positive predictor of annual NO₃-N output in one watershed, annual NH₄-N output in three watersheds, and annual PON output in three watersheds. Of the four forms of N, only DON had consistent seasonal concentration patterns in all watersheds. Peak streamwater DON concentrations occurred in November-December after the onset of fall rains but before the peak in the hydrograph, probably due to flushing of products of decomposition that had built up during the dry summer. Multiple biotic controls on the more labile nitrate and ammonium concentrations in streams may obscure temporal DIN flux patterns from the terrestrial environment. Results from this study underscore the value of using several watersheds from a single climatic zone to make inferences about controls on stream N chemistry; analysis of a single watershed may preclude identification of geographically extensive mechanisms controlling N dynamics.     

基于土地利用/覆被变化的流域景观格局与水沙响应关系研究

以黄河流域的2个典型流域为研究对象,借助GIS和Fragstats平台与长系列水沙数据,分析流域景观格局和水沙变化特征,并探讨景观指数与径流输沙的关系。结果表明:(1)两个流域优势景观类型为草地,1985—2010年间变化最大的景观类型分别为未利用土地(25a变幅为453.94 km~2)和耕地(25a变幅为52.85 km~2);(2)秃尾河流域景观均向规则、高连通和高度聚集的方向发展。孤山川控制流域内景观多样性和聚集度逐渐增加,整体向好。秃尾河流域景观稳定性指数高于孤山川流域,两流域草地和未利用土地地稳定性均呈增加趋势,而城乡工矿用地则相反。(3)流域年径流量和泥沙量均呈现逐年同步减小的趋势。秃尾河年径流量明显高于孤山川,但孤山川流域泥沙量与秃尾河流域相近。两流域径流泥沙相关关系显著,秃尾河流域相关系数(0.48)明显低于孤山川流域(0.85)。(4)景观指数与径流量、泥沙量呈显著线性相关,其中景观多样性相关的指数SHDI、SIDI、SHEI和SIEI均与径流呈极显著正相关,而泥沙仅与CONTAG、COHESION呈显著负相关。     

Atmospheric deposition and watershed nitrogen export along an elevational gradient in the Catskill Mountains, New York

Cumulative effects of atmospheric N deposition mayincrease N export from watersheds and contribute tothe acidification of surface waters, but naturalfactors (such as forest productivity and soildrainage) that affect forest N cycling can alsocontrol watershed N export. To identify factors thatare related to stream-water export of N, elevationalgradients in atmospheric deposition and naturalprocesses were evaluated in a steep, first-orderwatershed in the Catskill Mountains of New York, from1991 to 1994.Atmospheric deposition of SO ₄ ^2– , andprobably N, increased with increasing elevation withinthis watershed. Stream-water concentrations ofSO ₄ ^2– increased with increasing elevationthroughout the year, whereas stream-waterconcentrations of NO ₃ ^– decreased withincreasing elevation during the winter and springsnowmelt period, and showed no relation with elevationduring the growing season or the fall. Annual exportof N in stream water for the overall watershed equaled12% to 17% of the total atmospheric input on thebasis of two methods of estimation. This percentagedecreased with increasing elevation, from about 25%in the lowest subwatershed to 7% in the highestsubwatershed; a probable result of an upslope increasein the thickness of the surface organic horizon,attributable to an elevational gradient in temperaturethat slows decomposition rates at upper elevations. Balsam fir stands, more prevalent at upper elevationsthan lower elevations, may also affect the gradient ofsubwatershed N export by altering nitrification ratesin the soil. Variations in climate and vegetationmust be considered to determine how future trends inatmospheric deposition will effect watershed export ofnitrogen.