From protectionism to inclusion: A New Zealand perspective on health‐related research involving adults incapable of giving informed consent

The revision of the Council of International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS) International ethical guidelines for health‐related research (2016) heralds a paradigm shift from the ‘protectionist’ policies that emerged following historical research atrocities of the 20th century, towards a more nuanced and inclusive approach to research participation. Adopting this modified approach will enable countries to secure the benefits of research for individuals and for society as a whole, while at the same time minimizing the potential for exploitation and research‐related harms. This article considers the potential impact of Guideline 16 of the CIOMS 2016 from a New Zealand perspective, with respect to research involving adults with impaired capacity and who are incapable of giving informed consent. While the CIOMS 2016 apply a ‘minimal risk’ threshold to guide research involving adults who lack capacity to consent, New Zealand law currently adopts a ‘best interests’ standard which significantly restricts the scope of permissible research that may be performed in this context. This article argues that the CIOMS 2016 should influence change to New Zealand’s legal framework for ethical review of research. CIOMS 2016 provides useful guidance for the necessary standards and processes to enable the responsible and ethical inclusion of adults with impaired capacity in research.     

Absolute Sustainability‐Based Life Cycle Assessment (ASLCA): A Benchmarking Approach to Operate Agri‐food Systems within the 2°C Global Carbon Budget

Given the increasing environmental impacts associated with global agri‐food systems, operating and developing these systems within the so‐called absolute environmental boundaries has become crucial, and hence the absolute environmental sustainability concept is particularly relevant. This study introduces an approach called absolute sustainability‐based life cycle assessment (ASLCA) that informs the climate impacts of an agri‐food system (on any economic level) in absolute terms. First, a global carbon budget was calculated that is sufficient to limit global warming to below 2°C. Next, a share of the carbon budget available to the global agri‐food sector was estimated, and then it was shared between agri‐food systems on multiple economic levels using four alternative methods. Third, the climate impacts of those systems were calculated using life cycle assessment methodology and were benchmarked against those carbon budget shares. This approach was used to assess a number of New Zealand agri‐food systems (agri‐food sector, horticulture industries and products) to investigate how these systems operated relative to their carbon budget shares. The results showed that, in 2013, the New Zealand agri‐food systems were within their carbon budget shares for one of the four methods, and illustrated the scale of change required for agri‐food systems to perform within their carbon budget shares. This method can potentially be extended to consider other environmental impacts with global boundaries; however, further development of the ASLCA is necessary to account for other environmental impacts whose boundaries are only meaningful when defined at a regional or local level.     

Historical records of passerine introductions to New Zealand fail to support the propagule pressure hypothesis

Blackburn et al. (Biodiver Conserv 20:2189–2199, 2011) claim that a reanalysis of passerine introductions to New Zealand supports the propagule pressure hypothesis. The conclusions of Blackburn et al. (2011) are invalid for three reasons: First, the historical record is so flawed that there is no sound basis for identifying the mechanisms behind extinction following introduction, or whether species were successful because they were introduced in large numbers or were introduced in large numbers because earlier releases succeeded. Second, the GLIMMIX analysis of Blackburn et al. (2011) is biased in favor of the propagule pressure hypothesis. Third, the population viability analysis presented by Blackburn et al. (2011) is based on unjustified and questionable assumptions. It is likely that the outcome of passerine bird introductions to New Zealand depended on species characteristics, site characteristics, and human decisions more than on a simple summing of the numbers introduced.     

When is it coevolution? A reply to Morgan-Richards et al.

I recently hypothesised that some characteristics of fleshy-fruits in New Zealand could result from coevolution with wētā (Burns 2006a). Morgan-Richards et al. (2007) expand on the subject by offering some suggestions on how this hypothesis could be tested and by conducting several small field trials. In the process they argue emphatically against the hypothesis.Morgan-Richards et al. (2007) have rather strong opinions concerning the validity of the hypothesis that some New Zealand fruits are adapted for wētā dispersal. Future work might very well validate their opinion. Unfortunately, the data and logic contained in their Forum paper do not bring us any closer to the truth.     

Estimating population parameters of broadnose sevengill sharks (Notorynchus cepedianus) using photo identification capture-recapture

The broadnose sevengill shark (Notorynchus cepedianus) is a common high trophic-level predator around coastal New Zealand. Data on the ecology of the species in New Zealand are severely lacking, and anthropogenic impacts are unquantified. To partially address this, the authors undertook a study of the demographics of a population at Stewart Island. Sampling trips were carried out seasonally from winter 2016 to spring 2017. A baited underwater video system (BUV) was deployed on 133 occasions (mean = 22.2 deployments per season) in a shallow coastal embayment to capture underwater video of N. cepedianus for photo identification of individuals. N. cepedianus was detected on all but one deployment. Images extracted from video recorded the presence of 149 different individuals. Capture-recapture analysis of these data using robust design methods indicated a seasonal trend in abundance of the population using the study area, ranging from 34 (95% C.I. = 21–55) during winter 2016, to 94 (95% C.I. = 44–199) during spring 2017. This study presents the first data on demographic parameters of N. cepedianus in New Zealand.     

Inference of population subdivision from the VNTR distributions of New Zealanders

A population sample from people of diverse ethnic origins living in New Zealand serves as a database to test methods for inference of population subdivision. The initial null hypothesis, that the population sample is homogeneous across ethnic groups, is easily rejected by likelihood ratio tests. Beyond this, methods for quantifying subdivision can be based on the probability of drawing alleles identical by descent (F _ST ), probabilities of matching multiple locus genotypes, and occurrence of unique alleles. Population genetic theory makes quantitative predictions about the relation betweenF _ST , population sizes, and rates of migration and mutation. Some VNTR loci have mutation rates of 10^–2 per generation, but, contrary to theory, we find no consistent association between the degree of population subdivision and mutation rate. Quantification of population substructure also allows us to relate the magnitudes of genetic distances between ethnic groups in New Zealand to the colonization history of the country. The data suggests that the closest relatives to the Maori are Polynesians, and that no severe genetic bottleneck occurred when the Maori colonized New Zealand. One of the central points of contention regarding the application of VNTR loci in forensics is the appropriate means for estimating match probabilities. Simulations were performed to test the merits of the product rule in the face of subpopulation heterogeneity. Population heterogeneity results in large differences in estimates of multilocus genotype frequencies depending on which subpopulation is used for reference allele frequencies, but, of greater importance for forensic purposes, no five locus genotype had an expected frequency greater than 10^–6. Although this implies that a match with an innocent individual is unlikely, in a large urban area such chance matches are going to occur.Editor's commentsA side-benefit of the collection of DNA data from human populations is the light it may shed on human evolution. The authors discuss the colonization history of New Zealand in the light of such data. From a forensic viewpoint, too much should not be made of the differences between the major ethnic groups within New Zealand, as the forensic community in that country maintains separate databases for Caucasian, Maori and Pacific Islander (Buckletonet al., 1987). It will be of interest in the future to examine subdivision within these groups, as opposed to within the country as a whole. The authors' comments on testing for independence will need to read along with the findings of Zaykinet al. and Maiste and Weir in this volume. The authors had not seen the Budowleet al. (1994) rebuttal to the paper of Kraneet al. (1992).     

Positive impacts in social life cycle assessment: state of the art and the way forward

Purpose

Social life cycle assessment (SLCA) is a methodology under continuous development, which may be applied at different scales: from products to economic sectors up to systems at region (meso) and country (macro) scales. Traditionally, SLCA has been focusing on the assessment of negative social externalities, whereas also positive social impacts could be associated to human interventions. The purpose of the present study is to understand how positive impacts are defined in published literature and how they could be assessed through indicators. The aim is to clarify the concept among scholars and to support decision making in business and policy context.

Methods

The study uses a systematic review approach in order to analyse the types of indicators adopted. In the field of SLCA and according to Paragahawewa et al. (2009), “[I]ndicators are ‘pointers’ to the state of the impact categories (and/or subcategories) being evaluated by the SLCA”. Indicators can be quantitative, semi-quantitative or qualitative (UNEP/SETAC 2009). This review was carried out in order to identify and analyse positive impacts and indicators. After careful scrutiny, 47 papers containing theoretical frameworks were considered, as well as 46 papers presenting case studies.

Results and discussion

Compared to environmental life cycle assessment (E-LCA), where the presence of positive impacts is lower, evaluating benefits or positive impacts can still play a major role in SLCA (Benoît et al. 2010). A quarter of the analysed papers on theoretical frameworks take into account the topic of positive impacts and indicators. Results from case study analysis highlight as “workers”, was the most considered stakeholder (in 100 % of the analysed papers), and as the majority of positive indicators used in the case study analysed are recorded in relation to “other value chain actors”. Within the concept of “positive impacts”, no reference should be made merely to the utility of a product or service. In a broader sense, we could refer to solutions improving the conditions of one or various stakeholders involved. In other words, these are solutions that carry a positive contribution to one or more stakeholders without harming others.

Conclusions

So far, positive impacts are barely covered in literature. There is a clear need of streamlining definition and indicators, especially if they should be applied in a policy context complementing traditional—and often monetary-based, cost-benefit analysis (CBA).

     

Faith after an Earthquake: A Longitudinal Study of Religion and Perceived Health before and after the 2011 Christchurch New Zealand Earthquake

On 22 February 2011, Christchurch New Zealand (population 367,700) experienced a devastating earthquake, causing extensive damage and killing one hundred and eighty-five people. The earthquake and aftershocks occurred between the 2009 and 2011 waves of a longitudinal probability sample conducted in New Zealand, enabling us to examine how a natural disaster of this magnitude affected deeply held commitments and global ratings of personal health, depending on earthquake exposure. We first investigated whether the earthquake-affected were more likely to believe in God. Consistent with the Religious Comfort Hypothesis, religious faith increased among the earthquake-affected, despite an overall decline in religious faith elsewhere. This result offers the first population-level demonstration that secular people turn to religion at times of natural crisis. We then examined whether religious affiliation was associated with differences in subjective ratings of personal health. We found no evidence for superior buffering from having religious faith. Among those affected by the earthquake, however, a loss of faith was associated with significant subjective health declines. Those who lost faith elsewhere in the country did not experience similar health declines. Our findings suggest that religious conversion after a natural disaster is unlikely to improve subjective well-being, yet upholding faith might be an important step on the road to recovery.     

Distribution and abundance of labrids in northeastern New Zealand: the relationship between depth,exposure and pectoral fin aspect ratio

Physical factors influencing the distribution and abundance of seven common labrid fishes were examined over four rocky reef locations in northeastern New Zealand. Depth and exposure for each species (both within and among sexes) were related to pectoral fin aspect ratio. Each of the four locations (two mainland and two island) displayed distinct labrid assemblages, which were consistent over time, likely due to the influence of the East Auckland Current. There was a consistent depth-related trend for most species, regardless of location. Several species also showed a sex related depth difference. There was also a trend for some species to be associated with certain levels of wave exposure. For most species, the relationship between pectoral fin aspect ratio and the above physical variables was not as strongly evident in this temperate assemblage as has been previously found in tropical reef fish systems. Although some species did follow the predicted shifts in fin aspect ratio with depth and/or exposure, the observed trends were unrelated to fin aspect ratio for many other species. These findings suggest that wave exposure may not be as important for labrids on northeastern New Zealand reefs as it may be in tropical coral reefs systems. The lower fin aspect ratios for New Zealand labrids, compared to tropical labrids, suggest that New Zealand labrids represent a subset of the total pectoral fin diversity in the Labridae. Consequently, the potential for distinct trends in fin aspect ratio and physical variables to be evident may be reduced.     

A festschrift for Jeremy B.C. Jackson and his integration of paleobiology, ecology, evolution, and conservation biology

This collection of papers is dedicated to the career and achievements of Dr. Jeremy B.C. Jackson, and is written by a sample of his students, post-docs, and colleagues over his career. Jackson is an influential leader in cross-disciplinary research integrating ecology and paleontology. His contributions are broad in scope, and range in topic from the ecological and evolutionary consequences of the formation of the Central American Isthmus to the long-term impacts of human activities on the oceans. Two areas of particular interest have been the evolutionary ecology of coral reef organisms and the tempo and mode of speciation in the sea. Papers in the collection examine: colonial marine animals (Buss and Rice, Lidgard et al.), marrying genes and fossils (Budd et al., Marko and Hart, Palumbi et al., Jagadeeshan and O’Dea), the geography, tempo, and mode of evolution (Bromfield and Pandolfi, Norris and Hull, Vermeij, Erwin and Tweedt), and marine ecosystem health (Sandin and Sala).     

A new approach to species distributional indicators for the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD)

We propose alternative fish-populations spatial indicators for use in the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). Following Commission Decision 2010/477, we have applied two different spatial indicators to three fish populations with “slow type” life-history traits, i.e. slow growing like Helicolenus dactylopterus, or large bodied like Merluccius merluccius and Lophius budegassa. We tested their efficiency separately and combined. One of these indicators, the presence/absence of the population in sampling squares, had already been applied during the initial assessment of the MSFD in Spain. Another indicator, the geographical spread, is proposed here as a new monitoring tool for the MSFD in Spanish waters. The results demonstrate for the three populations analyzed that neither indicator was sufficient alone to describe the population spatial pattern or its evolution. Thus, the approach to implementing the MSFD indicated in Commission Decision 2010/477 is not sufficient to provide integrated information about the spatial behavior of the fish populations analyzed. Although numerical targets or threshold values cannot be set, directional targets could be proposed, based on the results of both indicators, if evaluation of them is extended to more species and more geographical areas. The analysis could be extended to other “slow type” populations within the fish community and also to different ecoregions. We propose an approach including the estimation of two different indicators to monitoring both the area occupied and the geographical spread of fish populations within communities, interpreting them together to generate a more complete picture of the spatial patterns of those populations. In spite of the difficulties in fixing numerical targets or thresholds, or in distinguishing between environmentally and human driven changes in the population spatial distributions, this approach helps to summarize fish spatial behavior. It improves information from the indicators applied alone and reduces the requirement for a large number of maps (except for some particular event or population). The proposed indicators can be readily used by managers and politicians.     

Investigating the Relationship between Ethnic Consciousness,Racial Discrimination and Self-Rated Health in New Zealand

In this study, we examine race/ethnic consciousness and its associations with experiences of racial discrimination and health in New Zealand. Racism is an important determinant of health and cause of ethnic inequities. However, conceptualising the mechanisms by which racism impacts on health requires racism to be contextualised within the broader social environment. Race/ethnic consciousness (how often people think about their race or ethnicity) is understood as part of a broader assessment of the ‘racial climate’. Higher race/ethnic consciousness has been demonstrated among non-dominant racial/ethnic groups and linked to adverse health outcomes in a limited number of studies. We analysed data from the 2006/07 New Zealand Health Survey, a national population-based survey of New Zealand adults, to examine the distribution of ethnic consciousness by ethnicity, and its association with individual experiences of racial discrimination and self-rated health. Findings showed that European respondents were least likely to report thinking about their ethnicity, with people from non-European ethnic groupings all reporting relatively higher ethnic consciousness. Higher ethnic consciousness was associated with an increased likelihood of reporting experience of racial discrimination for all ethnic groupings and was also associated with fair/poor self-rated health after adjusting for age, sex and ethnicity. However, this difference in health was no longer evident after further adjustment for socioeconomic position and individual experience of racial discrimination. Our study suggests different experiences of racialised social environments by ethnicity in New Zealand and that, at an individual level, ethnic consciousness is related to experiences of racial discrimination. However, the relationship with health is less clear and needs further investigation with research to better understand the racialised social relations that create and maintain ethnic inequities in health in attempts to better address the impacts of racism on health.     

Occurrence of the whitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesus at the Kermadec Islands,Southwest Pacific Ocean

ABSTRACT

Four observations of what was probably a single vagrant adult female whitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesus were made at Raoul and Meyer Islands, Kermadec Islands, New Zealand, over a 12 month period in 2014/15. This is the most southerly occurrence of the whitetip reef shark and ambient winter temperatures were close to the assumed thermal minimum for the species. The closest potential source population occurs at Minerva Reefs, about 598?km northwest of Raoul Island.     

Use of a spectrophotometric bioassay for determination of microbial sensitivity to manuka honey

The antimicrobial activity of manuka honey has been well documented (Molan, 1992a,b,c, 1997) [Molan, P.C., 1992. The antibacterial activity of honey. 1: the nature of the antibacterial activity. Bee World 73 (1) 5-28; Molan, P.C., 1992. The antibacterial activity of honey. 2: variation in the potency of the antibacterial activity. Bee World 73 (2) 59-76; Molan, P.C., 1992. Medicinal uses for honey. Beekeepers Quarterly 26; Molan, P.C., 1997. Finding New Zealand honeys with outstanding antibacterial and antifungal activity. New Zealand Beekeeper 4 (10) 20-26]. The current bioassays for determining this antimicrobial effect employ a well diffusion (Ahn and Stiles, 1990) [Ahn, C., Stiles, M.E., 1990. Antibacterial activity of lactic acid bacteria isolated from vacuum-packed meats. Journal of Applied Bacteriology 69, 302-310], (Weston et al., 1999) [Weston, R.J., Mitchell, K.R., Allen, K.L., 1999. Antibacterial phenolic components of New Zealand manuka honey. J. Food Chem. 64, 295-301] or disc diffusion (Taormina et al., 2001) [Taormina, Peter J., Niemira, Brendan A., Beuchat, Larry R., 2001. Inhibitory activity of honey against food borne pathogens as influenced by the presence of hydrogen peroxide and level of antioxidant power. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 69, 217-225] assay using zones of inhibition as indicators of bacterial susceptibility. The development of a 24-h spectrophotometric assay employing 96-well microtiter plates, that is more sensitive and more amenable to statistical analysis than the assays currently employed, was undertaken. This simple and rapid assay permits extensive kinetic studies even in the presence of low honey concentrations, and is capable of detecting inhibitory levels below those recorded for well or disc diffusion assays. In this paper, we compare the assay to both well and disc diffusion assays. The results we obtained for the spectrophotometric method MIC values show that this method has greater sensitivity than the standard well and disc diffusion assays. In addition, inter- and intra-assay variance for this method was investigated, demonstrating the methods reproducibility and repeatability.     

Effects of heavy ions on rabbit tissues: analysis of low levels of DNA damage in retinal photoreceptor cells

When suitable precautions are taken, sedimentation of DNA through reoriented alkaline sucrose gradients in zonal rotors can be used to determine small amounts of DNA damage in mammalian cells without resorting to radioactive precursors. Hence, the method is especially useful for studying the efficacies of DNA repair mechanisms in the neurons of the central nervous system (CNS) and the accumulation of DNA damage in the ageing CNS. Here we describe the technique as it has been used to examine the DNA damage occurring in the photoreceptor cells of the retina of the New Zealand white rabbit during the course of natural ageing or after exposure to heavy ions. This article is an integral part of a series of reports of the latter studies (Lett et al. 1980, Keng and Lett 1981, Cox et al. 1981, 1982, Keng et al. 1982). With the same analytical technique, very low levels of radioactive DNA precursors can be used to advantage in investigations of proliferating cells.     

Possums as seed dispersers in New Zealand: A response to Williams (2003)

We agree with Williams’ (2003) response to our previous paper (Dungan et al., 2002) whereby data is presented in support of the contention that we overstated our argument that possums may be the only dispersal vector for large–seeded native New Zealand species. We contend that this does not alter our overall conclusions, but agree that additional work is needed to balance any potential positive effects of possums as seed dispersers against their significant negative impacts on forested ecosystems.     

A Quantitative Assessment of Risk for the Importation of Camels into New Zealand

Introduced species, particularly mammals, have caused significant damage to New Zealand's environment. In 1996 specific legislation was put in place to manage intentional introductions. In 2008 approval was sought to import 16 camels (Camelus dromedarius) into New Zealand for the purpose of establishing a trekking company. This article provides a summary of the quantitative assessment undertaken on the risks of importing camels. It was found that camels posed a low risk to public health but had a serious risk of establishing a wild population in New Zealand. The risk of camels becoming a pest was assessed as moderate. Overall, although the assessment ranked camels as a serious threat to New Zealand, this likely reflects the overly conservative nature of the assessment tool.     

First record of the genus Dudresnaya (Dumontiaceae,Rhodophyta) in New Zealand waters

The genus Dudresnaya is reported for the first time in New Zealand waters. Samples were collected in Bay of Islands, northern New Zealand, on rhodolith beds and at the edge of a rocky reef, between ?5 and ?10 m depth. The species was identified by morphological and anatomical characters as Dudresnaya capricornica and its identity was confirmed by molecular sequence data. This species is characterized by terete radial branches, outer cortical cells cylindrical, presence of hexagonal crystals, lack of annulation and mucilage coat on auxiliary cell branches, oblique division of carpogonium and cystocarps no cleft. The rbcL phylogenetic analysis showed the genus Dudresnaya is strongly supported and sister to taxa in the family Dumontiaceae. This family is also closely related to the families Rhizophillidaceae and Kallymeniaceae. This is the first record of the family Dumontiaceae in New Zealand.     

Distribution and abundance of fish in a rocky reef environment at the subantarctic Auckland Islands,New Zealand

Summary The distribution and abundance of fish in a rocky reef environment were investigated at the subantarctic Auckland Islands of New Zealand, in June 1986. Fish were counted in transects and specimens were taken. The diversity and abundance of species of large reef fish was low; a total of eight species were observed. Most fish were benthic carnivores. These findings are similar to studies of reef fish in subantarctic waters of Chile. Large differences in species composition were found among locations at the Auckland Islands. The number of species and their abundance was highest near exposed headlands. Few fish were found on reefs at more sheltered inlets. At most locations the nototheniids Paranotothenia angustata and P. microlepidota ranked first in abundance at deep and shallow sites. There were some species that showed differences in abundance with depth. Highest abundance of Bovichthys variegatus, Latridopsis cilaris, Latris lineata and Pseudolabrus cinctus were in deep water on reefs. Large numbers of juvenile P. microlepidota were found only in shallow water. No depth related patterns were found for P. angustata and Mendosoma lineatum. Specimens, other than those counted in transects, were also collected. There were small fish, 4 species of tripterygiids, 1 gobiescocid and 2 syngnathids. The Auckland Islands had closer zoogeographic affinities with islands of temperate and subantarctic New Zealand than with other landmasses of the westwind drift. Although most fish found at the Auckland Islands are found also in temperature New Zealand, the converse of this pattern was not found. The proportional representation of species and trophic groups differed markedly between these regions.