接触与混合——从Y染色体的角度看东乡人群及其语言的关系

东乡族是甘肃省特有的少数民族, 语言上隶属于阿尔泰语系蒙古语族, 其族源至今尚不明确。文章根据东乡人群和其他参考人群的Y 染色体单倍群数据所绘制的多维尺度分析图、树型聚类图、主成分分析图以及网络结构图分析结果显示, 东乡人在遗传结构上更靠近中亚族群, 而与蒙古人群距离甚远。通过计算汉藏人群、蒙古人群和中亚人群对东乡人群的遗传贡献率, 进一步证实了这种差距。据此, 本文认为：中国西北地区的东乡人群的父系遗传成分主要源于中亚地区操突厥语及波斯语的人群, 而非蒙古族。东乡族的这种父系遗传来源与其语言分类上的不匹配, 可以用精英主导模型来进行解释, 他们的祖先应该是被蒙古族在语言、文化上同化了的中亚人群。     

云南4个少数民族8个Y-STR位点的多态分布

对云南蒙古族、纳西族、普米族和藏族4个少数民族共183份样本进行了8个Y—STR位点的多态性分析。结果显示：4个民族都保留着较高的Y—STR遗传多态性,在测出的55个等位基因中共构建了101种单倍型,其中蒙古族有29种,纳西族有17种,普米族有26种,藏族有45种。Rst距阵表明,云南蒙古族与普米族和纳西族的遗传距离最远,分别为0．28945和0．25862;云南藏族与普米族的遗传距离较远,为0．20109;云南藏族与纳西族的遗传距离最近,比其他民族两两之间的距离小1个数量级,仅为0．09475。结合历史学和民族学对4个民族父系遗传的亲缘关系进行了初步的比较分析。     

菰属Zizania L.植物的分支分类研究

本文应用分支分类学中的最大同步法对全世界菰属Zizania L.及其有关属种进行定量分析研究其种系发生后所得出的分支树谱图上明显表示出法洛斯属Pharus Br.不应该与菰属、稻属Oryza L.等同位在稻族Oryzeae内,而应另立法洛斯族Phareae.菰属在稻族中独立出较进化的一支,当今称为菰亚族Zizaniinae.在菰属内全世界有4种.2亚种,其演化关系为菰Z.latifolia是最原始,由它分别向得克萨斯菰Z.texana及水生菰Z.aquatica演化,再由水生菰演化至沼生菰Z.palustris。     

金缕梅科银缕梅属与帕罗堤属的亲缘关系——核糖体DNA ITS序列证据

本文对金缕梅科弗特吉族(Molinadendron和Matudaea除外)的细胞核核糖体DNA ITS片段进行了序列分析,在此基础上对该族的演化关系、尤其是中国特有属银缕梅属的系统位置进行了最简约分支分析。基本结果如下：其一,蚊母族和狭义的弗特吉族均不形成自己的单系分支,因此,支持Endress的处理,即合并两族为广义的弗特吉族;其二,银缕梅属同帕罗堤属有着密切的亲缘关系,支持形态学和解剖学结论;其三,根据该片段核苷酸序列的演化速率推算出的银缕梅属和帕罗堤属间分化时间为晚中新世。此结论大致与化石记录相符。     

中国云南25个少数民族Y染色体DYS287位点的地理多态性

对中国25个少数民族的33个群体共1294份样品进行了Y染色体DYS287 (YAP)位点的遗传多态性分析, 结果为: 普米族YAP + 频率为72.3%, 是至今报道东亚人群中的最高频率; YAP + 频率较高的有藏族(36.0%)、纳西族(37.5%和25.5%)、壮族(21.3%)、景颇族(12.5%)、苗族(11.8%)、傣族(11.4%, 10.0%, 3.3%和2.0%)、彝族(8.0%)、 云南白族(6.7%和6.0%), YAP+频率较低的有内蒙古的蒙古族 (4.3%)、 湖南土家族(2.6%)、瑶族(2.2%)、怒族(1.8%); 没有发现YAP+的云南民族有拉祜族、哈尼族、阿昌族、独龙族、傈僳族、水族、布依族、佤族、布朗族、德昂族、满族、回族、蒙古族以及湖南白族. 33个群体的YAP+平均频率为9.2%, 与已报道中国人群的频率相符. YAP+频率在民族间有较大的差异, 同一民族的不同群体也不相同, 表现出明显的地理分布差异. 结合民族学、历史学和考古学的相关证据, 探讨了中国民族尤其云南各个少数民族现存格局的形成和发展历史.     

青藏高原及其毗邻山区蒙古绣线菊谱系地理学研究

以青藏高原及其毗邻山区的蒙古绣线菊23个居群324个个体为研究对象,选取叶绿体DNA非编码区trnL-trnF和rps15-ycf1片段对蒙古绣线菊进行谱系地理学研究。结果表明:(1)该研究区域中蒙古绣线菊亲缘关系相近的单倍型多发生于同一居群中,存在着明显的谱系地理学关系。(2)所检测得到的35个单倍型中,大约71.4%是居群内特有的单倍型,而出现频率最高的H1是最古老的单倍型,贝叶斯分析和单倍型简约网状图显示35个单倍型聚为地理分布范围各不相同的3个分支。(3)歧点分布分析得到分布图呈多峰曲线,说明蒙古绣线菊居群在较长的时间内发展稳定,没有经历突然的近期扩张。(4)BEAST分析结果显示,在45Mya左右开始出现蒙古绣线菊的谱系分支的分化。研究认为,蒙古绣线菊在青藏高原及其毗邻山区可能至少存在3个冰期避难所,其在青藏高原及其毗邻山区的分布格局主要是第四纪冰期-间冰期气候动荡、青藏高原隆升的共同作用的结果。     

利用古蛋白技术分析巨猿演化地位的评述

巨猿是中国南方更新世特有的大型猿类,因其巨大的牙齿和颌骨被认为是迄今生活在地球上体型最大的猿类。迄今为止,年代学和生物地层学证据显示巨猿的生存年代2~0.3 MaBP。由于中新世晚期—上新世时期化石记录的缺失,有关巨猿的起源和演化一直存在诸多争论。2019年,《自然》杂志报道广西吹风洞早更新世早期(1.9 MaBP)巨猿牙齿化石的古蛋白质研究^[1]。结果显示,巨猿牙齿牙釉质中保存了较为丰富的古代蛋白质,这些古蛋白质由409个特有的肽组成,分属6个内源性蛋白。对这些古老蛋白质的研究表明,巨猿在系统发育上属于猩猩分支系统,大约从10~12 MaBP前分化出来并独立演化。这是在亚热带地区的化石中首次提取如此古老的分子证据,提示古蛋白质研究有望为探索早期物种(包括人类)起源与演化提供重要依据。本文将简要回顾巨猿系统演化研究的历史,并对利用古蛋白技术分析巨猿的演化地位进行评述。     

中国扁桃亚属四种野生扁桃的系统发育与物种分化

基于核基因ITS序列研究中国4种野生扁桃: 新疆野扁桃(Amygdalus ledebouriana)、蒙古扁桃(A. mongolica)、长柄扁桃(A. pedunculata)和西康扁桃(A. tangutica)的系统发育关系和物种分化, 为4种植物的遗传与演化研究提供数据支撑。利用单倍型网络和主坐标分析揭示单倍型的聚类关系; 利用最大似然树和贝叶斯系统树分析单倍型的系统发育关系; 利用R语言“ecospat”包分析4种扁桃的生态位分化及其环境驱动因子。4种扁桃ITS1-ITS4片段总长为634 bp, 鉴别出27个核苷酸变异位点, 共定义了28个单倍型。4种扁桃种间最小遗传距离均大于种内最大遗传距离, 种间存在显著的遗传分化。4种扁桃的单倍型聚为两支: 新疆野扁桃、蒙古扁桃和西康扁桃聚为一支, 长柄扁桃为另一支; 单倍型网络和主坐标分析揭示的单倍型聚类关系与系统树一致。西康扁桃与蒙古扁桃、与长柄扁桃之间均表现出了显著的生态位分化, 最暖月最高气温、年平均气温、最冷月最低气温和最暖季降水量是驱动物种生态位分化的关键因子。     

斗鱼属鱼类亲缘关系的Cyt b基因序列和RAPD分析

采用mtDNA Cyt b基因序列分析和RAPD两种分子标记技术,研究了中国分布的叉尾斗鱼(Macropodus opercularis)、圆尾斗鱼(M.chinensis)和香港斗鱼(M.hongkongensis)以及越南的红鳍斗鱼(M.erythropterus)4种鱼类之间的亲缘关系.获得4种斗鱼14条Cyt b基因全序列(1 155 bp),结合GenBank中搜索到的近缘物种同源序列进行分析.从133条随机引物中筛选到36条引物,在优化的反应条件下,10个群体96个个体共扩增出清晰稳定的条带749条,构建矩阵进行分析和聚类.基于Cyt b全序列以邻接法和最小进化法构建的系统树及RAPD数据UPGMA聚类分析的结果都显示,香港斗鱼和红鳍斗鱼先聚为一分支,再与叉尾斗鱼聚类,圆尾斗鱼处于外缘.本研究结果反映了圆尾斗鱼与其他斗鱼的亲缘关系较远,种间遗传距离为0.184 5～0.225 3(Cyt b)和0.653 6～0.746 5(RAPD),两者为同一单系群中两个独立演化的自然类群;香港斗鱼与叉尾斗鱼间遗传分化明显,Cyt b碱基差异为11.00%,RAFD遗传距离达0.577 7,支持其为独立物种的观点,且香港斗鱼群体间遗传差异较大,Cyt b碱基差异为3.12%,RAPD遗传距离0.060 1;叉尾斗鱼群体间Nei's基因多样度和Shannon信息指数分别为0.058 2和0.086 9,而各群体内的数值分别为0.016 1～0.031 7和0.023 5～0.046 7,表明遗传差异主要来自群体间,并按分布流域分别聚类.     

中国野生大豆的遗传多样性和生态特异性分析

野生大豆（Glycine soja）是栽培大豆的祖先,为东亚特有种,大部分分布在中国。我们采用52对SSR引物和10个植物学性状,以遗传丰富度和Simpson多样性指数为指标,对来自中国3个地理生态区域涉及24个省区的196份野生大豆所构成的代表性样本的遗传变异进行了研究,以期从分子水平和表型水平两个层面上揭示中国野生大豆遗传多样性和地理生态特异性。结果表明：中国野生大豆群体SSR位点的等位基因平均丰富度（NA）和平均Simpson多样性指数（H）分别为16.1和0.852,高于栽培大豆（NA=11.4,H=0.773）,野生群体的遗传多样性明显高于栽培群体。3个地理生态群体中南方群体多样性最高（NA=12.9,H=0.842）,黄淮海群体最低（NA=11.4,H=0.805）,东北群体居中（NA=12.5,H=0.834）。群体间存在遗传分化,不同群体具有不同的特异等位基因,位点AW132402（A2连锁群）、Satt522（F）、satt150（M）、Sat_332（D1a）、Satt046（K）、sct_190（K）等的一些等位基因只在特定群体出现,表现出群体分化后的生态特异性。中国野生大豆植物学性状的群体变异丰富,平均Simpson多样性指数为0.710。地理群体间存在分化,最明显的是生育期性状的分化,反映了地理、光照和温度等生态因子的选择作用,其中南方地理群体多样性最高（H=0.671）。SSR分子标记和植物学性状所获结果相对一致,表明中国野生大豆地理群体间性状分化有其遗传分化的基础。     

Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity at the crossroads of North China and South Siberia reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity

North China and South Siberia, populated by Altaic- and Sino-Tibetan-speaking populations, possess extensive ethnolinguistic diversity and serve as the crossroads for the initial peopling of America and western–eastern transcontinental communication. However, the population genetic structure and admixture history of northern East Asians remain poorly understood due to a lack of genome-wide data, especially for Mongolic-speaking people in China. We genotyped genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms for 510 individuals from 38 Mongolic, Tungusic, and Sinitic-speaking populations. We first explored the shared alleles and haplotypes within the studied groups. We then merged with 3508 published modern and ancient Eurasian individuals to reconstruct the deep evolutionary and natural selection history of northern East Asians. We identified genetic substructures within Altaic-speaking populations: Western Turkic people harbored more western Eurasian-related ancestry; Northern Mongolic people in Siberia and eastern Tungusic people in Amur River Basin (ARB) possessed a majority of Neolithic ARB related ancestry; Southern Mongolic people in China possessed apparent genetic influence from Neolithic Yellow River Basin (YRB) farmers. Additionally, we found the differentiated admixture history between western and eastern Mongolians and geographically close Northeast Hans: the former received a genetic impact from western Eurasians, and the latter retained the primary Neolithic YRB and ARB ancestry. Moreover, we demonstrated that Kalmyk people from the northern Caucasus Mountains possessed a strong genetic affinity with Neolithic Mongolian Plateau (MP) people, supporting the hypothesis of their eastern Eurasian origin and long-distance migration history. We also illuminated that historical pastoral empires in the MP contributed considerably to the gene pool of northern Mongolic people but rarely to the southern ones. We finally found natural selection signatures in Mongolians associated with alcohol metabolism. Our results demonstrated that the Neolithic ancestral sources from the MP or ARB played an important role in spreading Altaic populations and languages. The observed multisources of genetic diversity contributed significantly to the extensive ethnolinguistic diversity in northern East Asia.     

贵州三都水族Y染色体单倍型频率分析

在92例贵州三都水族个体中,用PCR-RFLP法研究由11个单核苷酸多态位点(SNPs)组成的Y染色体单倍型频率分布,结果显示该人群的Y染色体主要为南方特异的H11和H9单倍型,两者频率高达90.22％。主成分分析结果显示其父系遗传结构与我国黎族、布依族等汉藏语系壮侗语族民族最为接近。通过Y染色体的遗传学观察与历史记载和语言学分类有较好一致性。 Abstract:Non-recombination region of Y-chromosome is a useful marker in tracing evolutionary history of paternal lineage.In the present study,total 92 individuals from Shui ethnic group in Sandu Shui Ethnic Group Autonomous County of Guizhou Province were inspected with 11 SNP sites including M7,M9,M15,M45,M89,M95,M119,M122,M130,M134 and YAP on Y-chromosome.All the subjects were required to be unrelated and without intermarriage with other ethnic groups within three generations.The haplotypes were analyzed by PCR-RFLP method.Four haplotypes H5,H8,H9 and H11 were detected with frequencies of 0.054,0.044,0.315 and 0.587,respectively.Principle component indicated that the paternal lineage of Shui ethnic group is much closer to Li ethnic group of Hainan Province and Bouyei ethnic group of Guizhou Province,which belong to the group of Zhuang-Dong branch of Sino-Tibetan language family.In addition genetic study of Shui coincides with its linguistic distribution.     

Fine‐scale genetic structure of Tujia and central Han Chinese revealing massive genetic admixture under language borrowing

Archaeological, genetic, and linguistic evidence has supported the idea that northern China is the original center of modern Sino‐Tibetan‐speaking populations. However, the demographic history of subsequent southward migration and genetic admixture of Han Chinese with surrounding indigenous populations remain uncharacterized, and the language shifts and assimilations accompanied by movement of people, or just an adaptation of cultural ideas among populations in central China is still unclear, especially for Tibeto‐Burman‐speaking Tujia and central Han Chinese populations. To resolve this, we genotyped over 60K genome‐wide markers in 505 unrelated individuals from 63 indigenous populations. Our results showed both studied Han and Tujia were at the intermediate position in the modern East Asian North–South genetic cline and there was a correlation between the genetic composition and the latitude. We observed the strong genetic assimilation between Tujia people and central Han Chinese, which suggested massive population movements and genetic admixture under language borrowing. Tujia and central Han Chinese could be modeled as a two‐way admixture deriving primary ancestry from a northern ancestral population closely related to the ancient DevilsCave and present‐day Tibetans and a southern ancestral population closely related to the present‐day Tai‐Kadai and Austronesian‐speaking groups. The ancestral northern population we suspect to be related to the Neolithic millet farming groups in the Yellow River Basin or central China. We showed that the newly genotyped populations in Hubei Province had a higher proportion of DevilsCave or modern Tungusic/Mongolic‐related northern ancestries, while the Hunan populations harbored a higher proportion of Austronesian/Tai‐Kadai‐related southern ancestries.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation in a species with two mitochondrial genomes: the case of Mytilus galloprovincialis from the Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Black Sea

We have examined mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variation in samples of the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis from the Black Sea, the Mediterranean and the Spanish Atlantic coast by scoring for presence or absence of cleavage at 20 restriction sites of a fragment of the COIII gene and at four restriction sites of the 16S RNA gene. This species contains two types of mtDNA genomes, one that is transmitted maternally (the F type) and one that is transmitted paternally (the M type). The M genome evolves at a higher rate than the F genome. Normally, females are homoplasmic for an F type and males are heteroplasmic for an F and an M type. Occasionally molecules from the F lineage invade the paternal transmission route, resulting in males that carry two F-type mtDNA genomes. These features of the mussel mtDNA system give rise to a new set of questions when using mtDNA variation in population studies and phylogeny. We show here that the two mtDNA types provide different information with regard to amounts of variation and genetic distances among populations. The F genome exhibits higher degrees of diversity within populations, while the M genome produces higher degrees of differentiation among populations. There is a strong differentiation between the Atlantic and the Black Sea. The Mediterranean samples have intermediate haplotype frequencies, yet are much closer to the Black Sea than to the Atlantic. We conclude that in this species gene flow among the three Seas is restricted and not enough to erase the combined effect of mutation and random drift. In one sample, that from the Black Sea, the majority of males did not contain an M mtDNA type. This suggests that a molecule of the maternal lineage has recently invaded the paternal route and has increased its frequency in the population to the point that the present pool of paternally transmitted mtDNA molecules is highly heterogeneous and cannot be used to read the population's history. This liability of the paternal route means that in species with doubly uniparental inheritance, the maternal lineage provides more reliable information for population and phylogenetic studies.     

Correlations in the population structure of music,genes and language

We present, to our knowledge, the first quantitative evidence that music and genes may have coevolved by demonstrating significant correlations between traditional group-level folk songs and mitochondrial DNA variation among nine indigenous populations of Taiwan. These correlations were of comparable magnitude to those between language and genes for the same populations, although music and language were not significantly correlated with one another. An examination of population structure for genetics showed stronger parallels to music than to language. Overall, the results suggest that music might have a sufficient time-depth to retrace ancient population movements and, additionally, that it might be capturing different aspects of population history than language. Music may therefore have the potential to serve as a novel marker of human migrations to complement genes, language and other markers.     

Heteroplasmy suggests paternal co-transmission of multiple genomes and pervasive reversion of maternally into paternally transmitted genomes of mussel (Mytilus) mitochondrial DNA

Marine mussels of the genus Mytilus have two types of mitochondrial DNA with separate paternal and maternal inheritance. Females are homoplasmic for an F genome that is transmitted to all offspring, whereas males are heteroplasmic for this F genome and for a highly diverged (> 20%) M genome that is transmitted only to sons. Here we provide phylogenetic evidence based on lrRNA sequence data that most of the paternal genomes in European M. trossulus have an introgressive female M. edulis origin and are nearly indistinguishable in sequence from F types of M. trossulus. This observation is best explained by the hypothesis that introgressed F type molecules have recently invaded the paternal route and have assumed the role of M molecules, then resetting to zero the time of sequence divergence between M and F lineages. European M. trossulus shows a high prevalence of males heteroplasmic for three different mitochondrial DNA types all having the same two paternal types and the same maternal type, consistent with paternal co-transmission of multiple genomes. Co-transmission of the same genomes must apparently operate uninterruptedly for several generations in spite of the very different evolutionary origin of the specific molecules that are transmitted paternally and maternally in European M. trossulus.     

Morphology, language and the brain: the decompositional substrate for language comprehension

This paper outlines a neurocognitive approach to human language, focusing on inflectional morphology and grammatical function in English. Taking as a starting point the selective deficits for regular inflectional morphology of a group of non-fluent patients with left hemisphere damage, we argue for a core decompositional network linking left inferior frontal cortex with superior and middle temporal cortex, connected via the arcuate fasciculus. This network handles the processing of regularly inflected words (such as joined or treats), which are argued not to be stored as whole forms and which require morpho-phonological parsing in order to segment complex forms into stems and inflectional affixes. This parsing process operates early and automatically upon all potential inflected forms and is triggered by their surface phonological properties. The predictions of this model were confirmed in a further neuroimaging study, using event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), on unimpaired young adults. The salience of grammatical morphemes for the language system is highlighted by new research showing that similarly early and blind segmentation also operates for derivationally complex forms (such as darkness or rider). These findings are interpreted as evidence for a hidden decompositional substrate to human language processing and related to a functional architecture derived from non-human primate models.     

How hierarchical is language use?

It is generally assumed that hierarchical phrase structure plays a central role in human language. However, considerations of simplicity and evolutionary continuity suggest that hierarchical structure should not be invoked too hastily. Indeed, recent neurophysiological, behavioural and computational studies show that sequential sentence structure has considerable explanatory power and that hierarchical processing is often not involved. In this paper, we review evidence from the recent literature supporting the hypothesis that sequential structure may be fundamental to the comprehension, production and acquisition of human language. Moreover, we provide a preliminary sketch outlining a non-hierarchical model of language use and discuss its implications and testable predictions. If linguistic phenomena can be explained by sequential rather than hierarchical structure, this will have considerable impact in a wide range of fields, such as linguistics, ethology, cognitive neuroscience, psychology and computer science.     

Suggesting a new European language policy

Conflict is the most intriguing aspect of contact linguistics. Throughout history ever since the Tower of Babel was left unfinished, contacts between speakers of different languages have unavoidably resulted in conflicts between speakers of those languages. Without any doubt, the European Union (EU)--above all after the decision to enlarge the community--has accepted the multidisciplinary symbolic function of language and culture as a basis for European political unification. Accordingly, European Union policy makers have had to analyze conflicts caused by monolingualism and multilingualism, all aspects of contact linguistics. Can these conflicts be solved, minimized or neutralized by strategies of language planning, language policies and language politics? Initial results of European language policy strategies permit at least a cautious measure of optimism and open broad perspectives for the future of a New Multilingualism which will be discussed in our contribution.     

The sound symbolism bootstrapping hypothesis for language acquisition and language evolution

Sound symbolism is a non-arbitrary relationship between speech sounds and meaning. We review evidence that, contrary to the traditional view in linguistics, sound symbolism is an important design feature of language, which affects online processing of language, and most importantly, language acquisition. We propose the sound symbolism bootstrapping hypothesis, claiming that (i) pre-verbal infants are sensitive to sound symbolism, due to a biologically endowed ability to map and integrate multi-modal input, (ii) sound symbolism helps infants gain referential insight for speech sounds, (iii) sound symbolism helps infants and toddlers associate speech sounds with their referents to establish a lexical representation and (iv) sound symbolism helps toddlers learn words by allowing them to focus on referents embedded in a complex scene, alleviating Quine''s problem. We further explore the possibility that sound symbolism is deeply related to language evolution, drawing the parallel between historical development of language across generations and ontogenetic development within individuals. Finally, we suggest that sound symbolism bootstrapping is a part of a more general phenomenon of bootstrapping by means of iconic representations, drawing on similarities and close behavioural links between sound symbolism and speech-accompanying iconic gesture.