Mitochondrial genome reorganization characterizes various lineages of mesostigmatid mites (Acari: Parasitiformes)

Mesostigmata is an extremely diverse group of mites with more than 11,000 described species in 109 families. The complete mitochondrial (mt) genomes of five species of mesostigmatid mites from three families (Varroidae, Ologamasidae, Phytoseiidae) have been reported previously; all of them are rearranged or highly rearranged in gene order. However, it is unclear when mt genome reorganization occurred and how common it is in mesostigmatid mites. We sequenced the mt genomes of ten species of mesostigmatid mites from five more families (Blattisociidae, Diplogyniidae, Laelapidae, Macrochelidae, Parasitidae). We found that species in the families Diplogyniidae and Parasitidae have retained the ancestral mt genome organization of arthropods, which is in stark contrast to the highly rearranged mt genomes in the Phytoseiidae species. As in the Varroidae and Ologamasidae species, the mt genomes of the Blattisociidae, Macrochelidae and Laelapidae species are also rearranged but are less rearranged than in the Phytoseiidae species. Each of the six mesostigmatid families that have rearranged mt genomes is characterized by unique gene order not seen in other mesostigmatid families. Furthermore, the mt genome organization also differs among three genera of the Phytoseiidae, between two genera of the Laelapidae, and among three Macrocheles species of the Macrochelidae. Our results indicate that: (a) the most recent common ancestor of mesostigmatid mites likely retained the ancestral mt genome organization of arthropods; and (b) mt genome organization characterizes various lineages of mesostigmatid mites and provides a valuable source of information for understanding their phylogeny and evolution.     

The diversity of soil mites (Acari: Mesostigmata) in yellow ant (Lasius flavus) nests along a gradient of land use

Mesostigmatid mites communities in yellow ant (Lasius flavus) hills and phoresis of mites on this ant species were analysed in the Wielkopolska Region, Central Poland. Samples were collected from ant nests located along a gradient of four different types of land use: forest, ecotone, meadow and garden. In total, 132 mites were collected in ant nests among which 26 species were identified. The highest total abundance of mites was observed in the ecotone. Moreover, 14 mite specimens were found on L. flavus workers bodies. These are the first records of phoresis of mesostigmatid mites on this ant species.     

Subfamily Limoniinae Speiser, 1909 (Diptera,Limoniidae) from Baltic Amber (Eocene): The Genus Elephantomyia Osten Sacken, 1860

A revision of the genus Elephantomyia Osten Sacken (Diptera: Limoniidae) from Baltic amber (Eocene) is presented. Four species—E. baltica Alexander, E. brevipalpa Loew, E. longirostris Loew, and E. pulchella Loew—are redescribed and documented with photographs and drawings. In addition, two new species of the genus are described: Elephantomyia bozenae sp. nov., and Elephantomyia irinae sp. nov. All these fossil species are placed within the subgenus Elephantomyia. A key to the extinct species of Elephantomyia is provided, and the genus’ ecological pattern and evolutionary aspects are discussed.     

Mites (Acari,Mesostigmata) in boreal Scots pine forest floors: effect of distance to stumps

Coarse woody debris (CWD) is a basic component of forest ecosystems and it plays a crucial role in species-poor boreal forests. Generally, previous studies have focused on differences between the forest floor and decaying logs of various tree species. The impact of distance to CWD has been investigated mainly for forest-floor snails and some groups of macrofauna, but not yet for mesostigmatid mites communities. We hypothesized that the effect of CWD decreases with increasing distance from CWD. To test this hypothesis we conducted a study in relatively species-poor Finnish boreal forest (at ca. 100 km northwest of Helsinki). In total, 81 samples were collected in 2007 from nine Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stumps, three microhabitats (CWD, soil/litter at 0.5 m from a stump and soil/litter at 1.5 m from a stump) and in three main directions (9 stumps × 3 microhabitats × 3 directions). Overall, 1965 mesostigmatid mites were collected representing 24 species. The mean number of mite species collected was significantly different between decaying stumps and forest litter; however, there was no significant difference between the litter samples at 0.5 and 1.5 m distance. The evenness index was significantly lower for samples collected from stumps than for litter in close (0.5 m) or far (1.5 m) distance. The most frequently encountered mite species were Veigaia nemorensis, Parazercon radiatus and Zercon zelawaiensis.     

Contrasting diversity dynamics of phoretic mites and beetles associated with vertebrate carrion

Carrion is an ephemeral and nutrient-rich resource that attracts a diverse array of arthropods as it decomposes. Carrion-associated mites often disperse between animal carcasses using phoresy, the transport of one species by another. Yet few studies have contrasted the dynamics of mite assemblages with other insect taxa present at carrion. We examined and compared the changes in abundance, species richness and composition of mite and beetle assemblages sampled at kangaroo carcasses in a grassy eucalypt woodland at four different times over a 6-month period. We found that the majority of mites were phoretic, with the mesostigmatid genera Uroseius (Uropodidae), Macrocheles (Macrochelidae) and Parasitus (Parasitidae) the most abundant taxa (excluding astigmatid mites). Abundance and richness patterns of mites and beetles were very different, with mites reaching peak abundance and richness at weeks 6 and 12, and beetles at weeks 1 and 6. Both mites and beetles showed clear successional patterns via changes in species presence and relative abundance. Our study shows that mesostigmatid mite assemblages have a delay in peak abundance and richness relative to beetle assemblages. This suggests that differences in dispersal and reproductive traits of arthropods may contribute to the contrasting diversity dynamics of carrion arthropod communities, and further highlights the role of carrion as a driver of diversity and heterogeneity in ecosystems.     

Speciation processes within the Korean Peninsula based on the mites from the family Zerconidae (Acari: Mesostigmata)

The mesostigmatid mites speciation of the family Zerconidae in the Korean Peninsula was analysed in relation to the range of this group in the world. The Korean Peninsula is located on the edge of the Holarctic and is characterised by a uniquely diversified climate shaping the longitudinally changing flora. At present, there are altogether 40 genera included in the family Zerconidae. So far, in the Korean Peninsula there have been recognised 18 species of the Zerconidae belonging to 11 genera. The endemic genera within the area include: Metazercon, Eurozer-con, Xenozercon, Koreozercon, Kaikiozercon, Aquilo-nozercon, and cf. Mesozercon gen. nov. A very high level of endemism (over 60%) proves the intensity of the speciation processes within the Zerconidae family on the Korean Peninsula.     

The role of bracket fungi in creating alpha diversity of invertebrates in the Białowieża National Park,Poland

Bracket fungi are seen mainly as the cause of economic losses in forestry, and their role as creators of biodiversity is relatively poorly understood. The aim of the study was defining the manner in which the degree of decay (DD) of the fruiting bodies determines the character of the invertebrate assemblages colonising them. The effect of this group of fungi on the modification of biodiversity of invertebrates (Aranae, Opiliones, Pseudoscorpionida, two groups of mites—Mesostigmata and Oribatida, and Collembola and Insecta) was investigated by analyzing 100 fruiting bodies of 10 species of bracket fungi divided into four DD classes. The material was collected at Białowieża National Park, which is considered to be the largest area of natural forests in the North European Plain. 16 068 invertebrate individuals classified into 224 species were obtained. Oribatid mites (12 543 individuals) constituted the largest group of individuals, which were classified into 115 species with the most numerous Carabodes femoralis (8,811 individuals). Representatives of this group of mites have been reported previously in the publications on bracket fungi; however, the contributions of Oribatida and other groups of invertebrates were not broadly compared. Moreover, the species such as Hoploseius mariae and H. oblongus, which were predominantly found in fruiting bodies of bracket fungi, have also been discerned. The invertebrate fauna differs depending on DD of the samples: In the more decayed samples, a higher number of both individuals and species were recorded compared to the samples with lower DDs; however, this trend proved to be nonlinear. The DCA and cluster analysis revealed a similarity of the invertebrate assemblages from the 2 DD and 4 DD samples. They also indicated that the group 3 DD differed the most from all the other samples. The indicator species analysis identified species characteristic to individual DDs: For group 1 DD, it was, for example, Hoploseius oblongus; for 2 DD—Orchesella bifasciata; and for 3 DD—Chernes cimicoides, while for 4 DD—Dinychus perforatus.     

Ancestor–descendant relationships in evolution: origin of the extant pygmy right whale,Caperea marginata

Ancestor–descendant relationships (ADRs), involving descent with modification, are the fundamental concept in evolution, but are usually difficult to recognize. We examined the cladistic relationship between the only reported fossil pygmy right whale, †Miocaperea pulchra, and its sole living relative, the enigmatic pygmy right whale Caperea marginata, the latter represented by both adult and juvenile specimens. †Miocaperea is phylogenetically bracketed between juvenile and adult Caperea marginata in morphologically based analyses, thus suggesting a possible ADR—the first so far identified within baleen whales (Cetacea: Mysticeti). The †Miocaperea–Caperea lineage may show long-term morphological stasis and, in turn, punctuated equilibrium.     

Winged Fruits of Deviacer in the Oligocene from the Ningming Basin in Guangxi,South China

Deviacer guangxiensis Chen & Manchester sp. nov. is described based on asymmetric samaras from the Oligocene Ningming Formation in Guangxi, South China, representing the first documentation of Deviacer fossils in Asia. The Oligocene species, with relatively large fruits, represents the youngest record of the genus so far known; all other records are from the Paleocene and Eocene, or late Eocene—early Oligocene in western North America and Europe. It indicates that the extinct genus, Deviacer, was widely distributed in the northern hemisphere during the Paleogene.     

Traversing the mountaintop: world fossil fuel production to 2050

During the past century, fossil fuels—petroleum liquids, natural gas and coal—were the dominant source of world energy production. From 1950 to 2005, fossil fuels provided 85–93% of all energy production. All fossil fuels grew substantially during this period, their combined growth exceeding the increase in world population. This growth, however, was irregular, providing for rapidly growing per capita production from 1950 to 1980, stable per capita production from 1980 to 2000 and rising per capita production again after 2000. During the past half century, growth in fossil fuel production was essentially limited by energy demand. During the next half century, fossil fuel production will be limited primarily by the amount and characteristics of remaining fossil fuel resources. Three possible scenarios—low, medium and high—are developed for the production of each of the fossil fuels to 2050. These scenarios differ primarily by the amount of ultimate resources estimated for each fossil fuel. Total fossil fuel production will continue to grow, but only slowly for the next 15–30 years. The subsequent peak plateau will last for 10–15 years. These production peaks are robust; none of the fossil fuels, even with highly optimistic resource estimates, is projected to keep growing beyond 2050. World fossil fuel production per capita will thus begin an irreversible decline between 2020 and 2030.     

Morphology and Molecules Reveal Unexpected Cryptic Diversity in the Enigmatic Genus Sinobirma Bryk, 1944 (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)

The wild silkmoth genus Sinobirma Bryk, 1944 is a poorly known monotypic taxon from the eastern end of the Himalaya Range. It was convincingly proposed to be closely related to some members of an exclusively Afro-tropical group of Saturniidae, but its biogeographical and evolutionary history remains enigmatic. After examining recently collected material from Tibet, northern India, and northeastern Myanmar, we realized that this unique species, S. malaisei Bryk, 1944 only known so far from a few specimens and from a very restricted area near the border between north-eastern Myanmar and the Yunnan province of China, may in fact belong to a group of closely related cryptic species. In this work, we combined morphological comparative study, DNA barcoding, and the sequences of a nuclear marker (D2 expansion segment of the 28S rRNA gene) to unequivocally delimit three distinct species in the genus Sinobirma, of which two are described as new to science: S. myanmarensis sp. n. and S. bouyeri sp. n. An informative DNA barcode sequence was obtained from the female holotype of S. malaisei—collected in 1934—ensuring the proper assignation of this name to the newly collected and studied specimens. Our findings represent another example of the potential of coupling traditional taxonomy and DNA barcoding for revealing and solving difficult cases of cryptic diversity. This approach is now being generalized to the world fauna of Saturniidae, with the participation of most of the taxonomists studying these moths.     

Glowing Seashells: Diversity of Fossilized Coloration Patterns on Coral Reef-Associated Cone Snail (Gastropoda: Conidae) Shells from the Neogene of the Dominican Republic

The biology of modern Conidae (cone snails)—which includes the hyperdiverse genus Conus—has been intensively studied, but the fossil record of the clade remains poorly understood, particularly within an evolutionary framework. Here, ultraviolet light is used to reveal and characterize the original shell coloration patterns of 28 species of cone snails from three Neogene coral reef-associated deposits from the Cibao Valley, northern Dominican Republic. These fossils come from the upper Miocene Cercado Fm. and lower Pliocene Gurabo Fm., and range in age from about 6.6-4.8 Ma. Comparison of the revealed coloration patterns with those of extant species allow the taxa to be assigned to three genera of cone snails (Profundiconus, Conasprella, and Conus) and at least nine subgenera. Thirteen members of these phylogenetically diverse reef faunas are described as new species. These include: Profundiconus? hennigi, Conasprella (Ximeniconus) ageri, Conus anningae, Conus lyelli, Conus (Atlanticonus?) franklinae, Conus (Stephanoconus) gouldi, Conus (Stephanoconus) bellacoensis, Conus (Ductoconus) cashi, Conus (Dauciconus) garrisoni, Conus (Dauciconus?) zambaensis, Conus (Spuriconus?) kaesleri, Conus (Spuriconus?) lombardii, and Conus (Lautoconus?) carlottae. Each of the three reef deposits contain a minimum of 14–16 cone snail species, levels of diversity that are similar to modern Indo-Pacific reef systems. Finally, most of the 28 species can be assigned to modern clades and thus have important implications for understanding the biogeographic and temporal histories of these clades in tropical America.     

Contribution of oribatid and mesostigmatid soil mites in ecologically based estimates of global species richness

Erwin’s method for estimating total global species richness assumes some host‐specificity among the canopy arthropods. This study examined possible host habitat specialization in two major groups of soil arthropods, the oribatid and mesostigmatid mites, by sampling beneath three tree species: Eucalyptus pilularis Smith, Eucalyptus propinqua Deane and Maiden and Allocasuarina torulosa (Aiton) L. Johnson. The sample sites were in the Lansdowne State Forest, New South Wales, Australia and the three tree species were selected on the basis of their known differential effects on soil. Sampling was conducted over three seasons, and 79 oribatid and 34 mesostigmatid species were identified from 25 196 and 3634 individuals, respectively. Tree species had little effect on mite species composition with only three oribatid species and no mesostigmatid species identified as host‐habitat specialists using a niche breadth measure. Of mite species found under E. pilularis, E. propinqua and A. torulosa trees, 2%, 1% and 0% were defined as host‐habitat specialists, respectively. In contrast, tree species had significant and consistent effects on mite community structure, which differed in relative abundance of the oribatid species, their size class distributions and species rankings. In the mesostigmatid communities, there was a difference in the ranking of the mite species among tree species. Although it was demonstrated that tree species have an impact on the soil environment, the differences between tree species were insufficient to change species composition. The low degree of host‐habitat specialization suggested that other factors were more important for determining mite species composition at a site, and soil mite host‐habitat specialization may not make a large contribution to estimates of total global species richness using methods such as those proposed by Erwin (1982) .     

Additions to the knowledge on fossil rodents of Uruguay (Mammalia: Rodentia)

Additions to the knowledge on fossil rodents of Uruguay (Mammalia: Rodentia). — This paper brings new information on fossil rodents of Uruguay. Four new species are described:Microcavia (M.) aua n. sp. (Caviidae),Ctenomys mesorhinus n. sp. (Octodontidae),Isostylomys intermedius n. sp. andIsostylomys magnus n. sp. (Dinomyidae), the latter from Argentina. Apart from this,Palmiramys waltheri Kraglievich, 1932, illustrated here for the first time, is considered a Lower Oligocene (Deseadan) ?Dasyproctidae. The first records for Uruguay ofEucardiodon cf.marshi (Ameghino) (Hydrochoeridae), and +Holochilus brasiliensis (Desmarest) are reported.     

Protoresinacarus brevipedis gen. n., sp. n. from Early Cretaceous Burmese amber: the first fossil record of mites of the Family Resinacaridae (Acari: Heterostigmata: Pyemotoidea)

A new genus and species of mites, Protoresinacarus brevipedis gen. n., sp. n. (Acari: Heterostigmata: Pyemotoidea), is described from Early Cretaceous Burmese amber. This represents the first fossil record of a member of the family Resinacaridae. It is represented by 21 phoretic females adjacent to an adult mantidfly (Neuroptera: Mantispidae). This is the first record of phoresy of pyemotid mites on members of the insect order Neuroptera. The fossil mites differ from extant members of the family in possessing distinctly shorter legs I, which do not reach beyond the apex of the gnathosoma, and by the long setae v ₁, v ₂ and c ₂.     

Two new species of Electra (Bryozoa, Cheilostomata) from the Miocene of the Aquitaine Basin, France

Post-Cretaceous examples of Electridae, a primitive family of cheilostome bryozoans, are poorly represented in the fossil record, probably because of their thinly calcified zooids and preference for nearshore environments. Two new electrid species are here described from the Lower Miocene (Burdigalian) of Pontpourquey, Aquitaine, France: Electra triaurata nov. sp. and Electra aquitanica nov. sp. Both species belong to extant species groups, the E. indica and E. biscuta groups, respectively, that presently occur in the Indo-Pacific; both are the only fossil examples of these species groups. Whereas E. triaurata nov. sp. has uniserial colonies, zooids with porous gymnocysts, three flattened spines and basal windows allowing etching of the substrate to produce the trace fossil Leptichnus, E. aquitanica nov. sp. has multiserial colonies and zooids with a proximal gymnocyst bearing 2 to 5 spines.     

Entrainment of Lemna CO(2) Output Through Phytochrome

The entrainability of Lemna perpusilla CO₂ output by periodic 15 minute red (R) and far red (F) illuminations was tested in low nitrate medium. R every 8 hour, symbolized R/R/R, gives a flat output (no entrainment) as does F/F/F. However, R/—/— (R every 24 hour) entrains rapidly, and F/—/— does so as well, in a similar manner. The effects of R/R/— and F/F/— also resemble each other closely. Entrainment by R/F/F or R/R/F is rapid and indifferent to order of presentation, e.g., R/F/F and F/R/F lead to the same steady state. Typical phytochrome reversals occur, e.g., R,F/F/F holds output flat, while F,R/F/F entrains in the manner of R/F/F. Blue (B) light acts like R in schedules such as B/F/F but like F in schedules such as B/R/R. In all schedules studied, the zeitgeber (primary synchronizer) appears to be the sharpest transition from a low to a high level of far red-absorbing phytochrome that occurs with a 24-hr periodicity. Thus in entrainment, and by inference in photoperiodic timing, the level of far red-absorbing phytochrome at any time may be less significant than the succession of levels of which it is a part, a conclusion that implies the existence of a “scanning” mechanism that compares levels of far red-absorbing phytochrome at various times of day.     

A new Hermeuptychia (Lepidoptera,Nymphalidae, Satyrinae) is sympatric and synchronic with H. sosybius in southeast US coastal plains,while another new Hermeuptychia species – not hermes – inhabits south Texas and northeast Mexico

Hermeuptychia intricata Grishin, sp. n. is described from the Brazos Bend State Park in Texas, United States, where it flies synchronously with Hermeuptychia sosybius (Fabricius, 1793). The two species differ strongly in both male and female genitalia and exhibit 3.5% difference in the COI barcode sequence of mitochondrial DNA. Setting such significant genitalic and genotypic differences aside, we were not able to find reliable wing pattern characters to tell a difference between the two species. This superficial similarity may explain why H. intricata, only distantly related to H. sosybius, has remained unnoticed until now, despite being widely distributed in the coastal plains from South Carolina to Texas, USA (and possibly to Costa Rica). Obscuring the presence of a cryptic species even further, wing patterns are variable in both butterflies and ventral eyespots vary from large to almost absent. To avoid confusion with the new species, neotype for Papilio sosybius Fabricius, 1793, a common butterfly that occurs across northeast US, is designated from Savannah, Georgia, USA. It secures the universally accepted traditional usage of this name. Furthermore, we find that DNA barcodes of Hermeuptychia specimens from the US, even those from extreme south Texas, are at least 4% different from those of H. hermes (Fabricius, 1775)—type locality Brazil: Rio de Janeiro—and suggest that the name H. hermes should not be used for USA populations, but rather reserved for the South American species. This conclusion is further supported by comparison of male genitalia. However, facies, genitalia and 2.1% different DNA barcodes set Hermeuptychia populations in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas apart from H. sosybius. These southern populations, also found in northeastern Mexico, are described here as Hermeuptychia hermybius Grishin, sp. n. (type locality Texas: Cameron County). While being phylogenetically closer to H. sosybius than to any other Hermeuptychia species, H. hermybius can usually be recognized by wing patterns, such as the size of eyespots and the shape of brown lines on hindwing. “Intricate Satyr” and “South Texas Satyr” are proposed as the English names for H. intricata and H. hermybius, respectively.     

A new fossil record of Thyrsopteridaceae (Cyatheales) from the mid-Cretaceous amber of Myanmar

Paleopalynology evidence and megafossil records indicated that tree fern order Cyatheales, played an important role in Mesozoic terrestrial ecosystem. Few fossil records of the family Thyrsopteridaceae have been reported so far. In the present study, we describe a distinctive fertile pinnule segment of a fern plant preserved in a mid-Cretaceous amber from Myanmar. The well-preserved fertile pinnule is identified as a new species of the extant tree fern genus Thyrsopteris (Thyrsopteridaceae): Thyrsopteris cyathindusia n. sp. It represents the second fossil species of Thyrsopteridaceae found in the mid-Cretaceous amber from Myanmar. The new species shows distinctive characteristics of the sporophyll that are considered paleoecologically/paleobiogeographically significant for evolution of the Thyrsopteridaceae.