神农架川金丝猴投食群的攻击行为及等级序列

为探讨人工补食条件下川金丝猴的攻击行为在维持社会等级中的作用,2007 年1 ～ 6 月,采用行为取样法
和全事件记录法对神农架自然保护区投食群的攻击行为及等级序列进行研究。我们共记录到8 种攻击行为,按
频次多少依次为:咕叫、抓打、追赶、瞪眼、瞪咕、驱赶、抢食、打架。攻击行为的发起者在性别间和年龄间
均存在显著差异,雄性多于雌性,年龄间按次数多少依次为:成年猴、亚成年猴、青年猴、少年猴;承受者在
性别间和年龄间差异均不显著。社会单元内与单元间攻击行为差异显著,前者多于后者。一雄多雌单元间的等
级高低依次为:长毛单元、白头单元、红头单元。基于单元内攻击行为较多,建议适当扩大投食场,给每只个
体分别投食,以减少因争食发生的攻击行为。     

云南塔城滇金丝猴掘食行为的初步研究

2006年3月至2007年5月,我们对云南塔城一个滇金丝猴群进行了连续跟踪,旨在调查其生境利用情况.在此期间,我们发现滇金丝猴在地面有掘土行为.通过照片分析,发现滇金丝猴的这种掘食行为旨在获取某种植物地下球茎.后分别在两个地点采用焦点动物行为记录法对这种掘食行为进行了记录.通过比较单次掘食行为的持续时间、掘食行为的发生频次以及掘取成功率,我们发现这些指标在不同年龄-性别组个体间的差异明显.成年雄猴的成功率明显高于其它两组;在单次掘食行为的时间花费上,成年雄猴和雌猴之间无差别,而亚成年个体表现为用时短和变换挖掘地点频繁的特点.就雄猴而言,成年有助于掘食成功.同时发现,带新生仔的雌猴也会下地采掘,但尚无成功采食纪录.进食植物球茎的过程中未发现分享块茎行为,但有抢食表现.     

黄山短尾猴对游人攻击行为比较

为探讨黄山短尾猴对游人攻击行为与猴(行为发起者)和游人(行为承受者)年龄/性别组的关系,于2008年11-12月和2009年4-5月以黄山短尾猴鱼鳞坑YAl群和YA2群为研究对象,将其攻击行为按照危害程度大小划分为3类,采用全事件取样法和连续取样法观察记录猴对游人攻击行为类型、发生攻击行为的短尾猴和受到攻击的游人年龄/性别组,并统计猴群和游人数最.研究发现,成年雄猴所有攻击行为发生的比例显著高于期望值(P<0.01),成年雌猴和未成年猴攻击行为Ⅲ(威胁)发乍的比例显著低于期望值(P<0.01);在游人中,成年男性受到所有攻击发生的比例显著高于期望值(P<0.01),成年女性和末成年人受到攻击行为Ⅲ发生的比例显著低十期单值(P<0.01).结果表明,黄山矩尾猴对游人的攻击行为在人猴年龄/性别组中存在差异.成年雄性比成年雌性和未成年猴更易攻击游人,成年男性游人比成年女性和未成年人更易受剑短尾猴攻击.建议在管理过程中重点监控管理成年雄猴和提醒成年男性游人,这为进一步探讨人猴之间关系提供科学基础,并为其他类似地区生态旅游监管提供案例以供借鉴.     

秦岭川金丝猴一个投食群等级关系的研究

2002年7月至2003年6月,采用焦点动物取样法和全事件记录法对秦岭山脉周至国家级自然保护区玉皇庙西梁川金丝猴投食群一雄多雌社会单元内部和社会单元间的攻击和屈服行为的指向和次数进行记录,应用计算优势指数的方法对社会单元内不同性别年龄组和社会单元间的等级进行排列。结果表明,在每一个社会单元内部成年雄性居最高地位,所有成年雌性占有第二阶层,亚成体处于第三阶层,青少年个体处于最低层。每个社会单元内成年雌性在一年内的等级序列并不是固定不变的,一般是雌性在产仔后顺位明显上升。八个社会单元在交配阶段和产仔阶段等级结构不同,等级最高的社会单元以及等级最低的社会单元的等级顺序没有发生变化,等级接近的社会单元间的等级顺序发生变化,其变化的原因可能主要与社会单元内部成员相互协作进行攻击有关。     

岷山山系川金丝猴群的社会结构——以唐家河国家级自然保护区川金丝猴为例

为进一步深入理解不同地理区域川金丝猴群的社会结构特点,于2014年3—7月,采用焦点动物取样法对岷山山系唐家河国家级自然保护区辅助投食成功的一个川金丝猴群进行了观察。研究表明:该猴群共有138只个体,包括16只成年雄性,48只成年雌性,11只亚成年雌性,3只亚成年雄性,36只青少年猴以及24只婴幼猴;猴群中成年个体与未成年个体的比例为0.86∶1。唐家河川金丝猴群具有典型的重层社会结构:即由11个一雄多雌单元(one-male units,OMUs)组成2个繁殖分队(breeding band),并分别与1个密切联系的全雄单元(all-male unit,AMU)共同构成。其中,每个OMU分别由6~15只个体组成,平均为10.64只±2.77只;AMU共21只个体,以青少年个体最多,占61.9%。方差分析表明:2个繁殖分队中的OMU大小差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。     

神农架川金丝猴投食群的母婴关系

灵长类动物母亲的育婴行为不仅对后代的存活起着关键作用,而且对婴猴的发育和成年后的社会交往有着重大影响,因此母-婴关系一直是灵长类学研究的热点之一。为了解川金丝猴的母-婴关系,探讨川金丝猴母-婴关系个体差异的影响因素,我们于2013年3月至2014年10月,以母-婴间相对距离表示照料强度,对神农架川金丝猴的母-婴照料关系以及母亲照料强度个体差异的影响因素进行了定量研究。结果表明：母亲照料行为强度、母亲对阿姨行为的容忍与婴猴年龄相关,限制行为与婴猴年龄不相关。身体接触与婴猴年龄不相关;腹部接触以及母-婴相对距离小于1 m与婴猴年龄呈负相关;相对距离1 m至5 m、相对距离5 m至10 m和相对距离大于10 m与婴猴年龄呈正相关;母亲对阿姨行为的拒绝与婴猴年龄呈负相关;母亲对婴猴的限制行为与年龄不相关。总的来说,即随着婴猴成长,母婴间距离越来越远,母亲也逐渐减少对婴猴的保护。母亲的生育经验、婴猴性别、婴猴出生先后和社会单元大小对神农架川金丝猴母婴关系没有显著影响,补食群丰富的食物资源和群内雌性友好的关系可能是导致本结果的原因。     

神农架川金丝猴投食群的取食优先序

为探讨人工补食条件下川金丝猴的取食优先序,2007年7月至9月,采用直接观察法对神农架自然保护区大龙潭投食猴群的取食顺序进行研究。结果表明,单元内有明显的取食顺序,但单元间没有。单元内取食顺序不仅与等级和年龄有关,还与单元结构变动相关。     

生态旅游活动中游客噪声对滇金丝猴的影响

生态旅游被视为解决保护和发展的最有效手段之一,但现阶段的生态旅游开展对野生动物造成影响的程度和方式还缺乏研究。为研究生态旅游活动开展过程中产生的噪声是否会对滇金丝猴（Rinopithecus bieti）产生影响,2017年7月5日至2018年2月8日,在云南香格里拉滇金丝猴国家公园,采用10 min间隔的瞬时扫描取样法记录游客噪声、观赏距离、可见滇金丝猴总数量及其不同年龄-性别组滇金丝猴个体数量。结果显示,生态旅游行为显著增加了环境噪声值,向游客开放时段的噪声值（52.42 dB）显著高于非开放时段（47.51 dB）,且游客数量越多噪声值越大;游客的观赏距离越近可见的滇金丝猴个体数量越少,且不同观赏距离下可见的滇金丝猴个体数存在显著差异,当观赏距离在11 ~ 15 m时,游客可见滇金丝猴总数量最多（2 046只）;在1 ~ 5 m的观赏距离内,不同年龄-性别组猴的理论可见数量不同,成年雄性猴的理论可见数量最高（2.9只）,其次是青少年猴（2.2只）,成年雌猴（1.8只）和婴猴（1.6只）最低。推测,不同年龄-性别组滇金丝猴个体抵抗干扰的能力不同,成年雄性猴抗干扰能力最强,其次是青少年猴个体,成年雌性猴和婴猴抗干扰能力较弱。由此,本研究认为,现阶段香格里拉滇金丝猴国家公园的生态旅游活动增加了环境噪声,且对滇金丝猴的行为产生了一定的干扰;游客观赏距离越近、游客数量越多,干扰越大。建议在未来的生态旅游过程中,严格设立游客观赏距离,且观赏距离应在10 m以上;设立标语,提醒游客保持安静,减少噪音,从而减少对滇金丝猴的干扰。     

笼养川金丝猴不同年龄阶段的发育特征

198 9～ 1998年间 ,对 46只不同年龄阶段的笼养川金丝猴 (Rhinopithecusroxellana)的外形、生理、行为等特征进行了比较。根据不同年龄阶段个体的综合特征 ,川金丝猴的发育期可划分为 5个年龄段 :婴幼阶段 ,少年阶段 ,青年阶段 ,亚成年阶段和成年阶段。观察发现 ,从出生到青年阶段 ,雌雄在体形大小和体重方面增长速度很接近。然而 ,从青年阶段开始 ,雄性的增长速度超过雌性。到了成年阶段 ,成年雄性的体重、坐高、尾长、头围、犬齿齿冠及被毛长度明显大于雌性 ,成年雌性的体重仅为成年雄性的 5 4% ,表现出显著的性二型性。雌性 3 6± 0 5 (n =5 )岁出现月经 ,其开始成功繁殖的年龄为 4～ 6岁 ;雄性 6 5 (n =4)岁出现射精行为 ,其开始成功繁殖年龄为 7～ 8岁。此外 ,对川金丝猴所特有的嘴角瘤的观察发现 ,雄性进入性发育年龄阶段后开始长出嘴角瘤 ;嘴角瘤大小随年龄增长而逐渐增大 ,直到性成熟。而雌性川金丝猴多无此结构或只有一个约绿豆大的痕迹。因此 ,嘴角瘤可以作为雄性川金丝猴性成熟的标志 ,是成年雄性川金丝猴的副性征。     

Effects of combination birth control on estrous behavior in captive western lowland gorillas, Gorilla gorilla gorilla

Combination birth control pills (CBC) are one of the most common birth control methods used for western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) housed in zoos. Since zoos are interested in maintaining as many natural behaviors as possible, it is important to know how contraception may affect social and sexual interactions among group members. Although some data are available regarding the influence of the pill on sexual behavior in human females, no data are available on its effects on gorilla estrous behavior. We examined temporal trends of estrous, aggressive, affiliative, and activity budget data in four females on CBC at the Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, IL. Behavioral data were collected using point sampling, all-occurrence records, and one-zero sampling. Estrous behavior occurred in less than 1% of observations. Using all-occurrence and one-zero sampling, estrous behavior occurred more frequently in week one of the cycle than any other week. The focal females exhibited affiliative, aggressive, and activity budget data evenly across their cycles. There were also no temporal trends in proximity to the silverback. Females varied by the types of estrous behavior they exhibited. We give a hormonal explanation for the prevalence of estrous behaviors in week one, and recommendations for effective behavioral sampling of gorilla estrous behavior.     

Behavior and Welfare of Domestic Cats Housed in Cages Larger than U.S. Norm

The effect of providing additional floor space on cat behavior and welfare is not well documented. This study involved replication of an investigation of cats’ responses to enhanced cage and room environments using cages of 0.56 m² with the same methodology but an increased space allowance of 1.1 m². Singly housed adult cats (n = 59) were randomly assigned to a treatment group that was a combination of a managed or unmanaged room and an enriched or unenriched cage environment. Cats were observed for 2 days for maintenance, affiliative, and avoidant behaviors using scan sampling and 5-min, continuous focal sampling. At the end of Day 2, cats’ reactions to the approach of an unfamiliar person were assessed. Cats housed in enriched/managed environments exhibited more maintenance and affiliative behaviors and fewer avoidant behaviors than cats in unmanaged/unenriched environments, suggesting that macro and micro environments may be equally relevant to the cat. Increased space did not enhance the cats’ welfare outcomes, suggesting that the provision of additional cage space may not be as important to the cat as a managed housing environment.     

Distribution of affiliative behaviors among adult females within a group of wild patas monkeys in a nonmating,nonbirth season

The distribution of four affiliative behaviors (proximity within 3 m, allogrooming, contact calling, and co-night-resting) were examined in a group of wild patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) during a nonmating, nonbirth season. To a greater or lesser extent, dominance rank and kinship influenced these behaviors of the adult females. Since high-ranking females tended to exhibit some of these behaviors with high frequency, they were considered to be acting as the focus of affiliative behaviors and as the center for group cohesion. Furthermore, related adult females also tended to exhibit some of these behaviors with a high frequency toward one another, so that matrilineal kinship was also seen to be an important factor for group cohesion. In contrast, the harem male tended to exhibit these behaviors at a low frequency and/or had no affiliative partner for any of them. Thus, it appears that the social organization of the patas group is concentric, being composed of high-ranking females in the center, low-ranking females at the periphery, and the harem male at the distant periphery.     

Importance of cooperation and affiliation in the evolution of primate sociality

The idea that competition and aggression are central to an understanding of the origins of group‐living and sociality among human and nonhuman primates is the dominant theory in primatology today. Using this paradigm, researchers have focused their attention on competitive and aggressive behaviors, and have tended to overlook the importance of cooperative and affiliative behaviors. However, cooperative and affiliative behaviors are considerably more common than agonistic behaviors in all primate species. The current paradigm often fails to explain the context, function, and social tactics underlying affiliative and agonistic behavior. Here, we present data on a basic question of primate sociality: how much time do diurnal, group‐living primates spend in social behavior, and how much of this time is affiliative and agonistic? These data are derived from a survey of 81 studies, including 28 genera and 60 species. We find that group‐living prosimians, New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, and apes usually devote less than 10% of their activity budget to active social interactions. Further, rates of agonistic behaviors are extremely low, normally less than 1% of the activity budget. If the cost to the actors of affiliative behavior is low even if the rewards are low or extremely variable, we should expect affiliation and cooperation to be frequent. This is especially true under conditions in which individuals benefit from the collective environment of living in stable social groups. Am J Phys Anthropol 128:84–97, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Tourist impact on Tibetan macaques

Abstract

Ecotourism is a growing sector of the tourism industry, but few studies to date have quantified its impacts on local people, tourists and wildlife. We present a preliminary study on threat and affiliative behaviors of two groups of free-ranging Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) as a function of habituation and tourist presence. Data indicate that the less habituated group spent less time within sight of tourists compared with the more habituated group. The more habituated group engaged in frequent affiliative behaviors while within sight of humans, whereas affiliative behavior was not observed in the less habituated group. The general pattern of threats consisted of adults primarily threatening juveniles and juveniles primarily threatening humans, possibly due to redirection. No clear pattern of threats as a function of tourist density emerged. Tourist feeding, although discouraged, potentially provided a catalyst for some aggression. Future research will focus on clarifying which human behaviors evoke specific threat responses from monkeys. These data will be used to refine the existing management plan for this monkey population.     

Effects of social and spatial density changes inCercopithecus aethiops sabaeus

Findings from two experiments usingCercopithecus aethiops sabaeus (the St. Kitts vervet) are reported. In the first experiment, group number was systematically altered in two groups of animals similar in age and sex but dissimilar in terms of their prior histories. These changes resulted in significant increases in selected affiliative behaviors, decreases in nonsocial behaviors, and no changes in agonistic behaviors. In the second experiment the living space of a well established group of animals was decreased. This change also resulted in a significant increase in the frequency of affiliative behaviors but in no change in agonistic behaviors. Results of the experiments are discussed. This research was in part supported by FY-1976 (Veterans Administration) and The H. F. Guggenheim Foundation through a grant to the Behavioral Sciences Foundation.     

Male chimpanzee behavior in relation to female ano-genital swelling

This study examined the relationships between male agonistic, affiliative, and sexual behaviors and female estrus condition in captive adolescent and young-adult chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Data on agonistic, affiliative, and sexual behaviors of 11 males living in three social groups were collected during daily 45 minute observations over a 5 month period. Female estrus condition was assessed daily using the relative size of the female's ano-genital swelling. It was hypothesized that the presence of maximally tumescent females would generate conflicts between males, so an increase in inter-male agonism was predicted. Males exhibited higher rates of agonism toward other males when at least one female in the group was maximally tumescent. Male affiliative behavior directed toward other males and social play with males were affected by the presence and number of maximally tumescent females. Male sexual behavior increased when maximally tumescent females were present.     

Reconciliation in the Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta)

Theory predicts that it should often be in the best interests of gregarious animals to repair social bonds damaged by within-group conflict. Indeed, reconciliation in many primates takes the form of affiliative behavior occurring shortly after a conflict. Here we inquired whether reconciliation also occurs among spotted hyenas ( Crocuta crocuta ), gregarious carnivores whose social lives share much in common with those of cercopithecine primates. In a large group of free-living hyenas in Kenya, we used focal animal observations to monitor rates at which various affiliative behaviors occurred before and after dyadic aggressive interactions. An affiliative behavior was identified as having a conciliatory function only if it occurred more frequently after than before fights, and if it was also associated with reduced rates of aggression between former opponents during the post-conflict interval. Of all affiliative behaviors monitored, only two types satisfied both these criteria: greeting behavior and non-aggressive approach. Over 72% of conciliatory behaviors occurred within the first five minutes after a fight, and hyenas reconciled after 14.6% of 698 fights. Mean conciliatory tendency (CT) for individual hyenas was 11.3%. Hyenas exhibited higher CTs when they were recipients (victims) of aggression than when they were aggressors, and they showed higher CTs in interactions with non-kin than with kin. Conciliatory tendencies did not vary with age–sex classes of opponents or with rank distance between opponents . Conciliatory tendency in spotted hyenas fell at the low end of the CT range observed among primates.     

Neighbor effect: evidence of affiliative and agonistic social contagion in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)

Previous studies of captive chimpanzees have demonstrated the "neighbor effect," or social contagion, with respect to agonistic vocalizations and behaviors. The present study considers whether there is a relationship between behavior patterns in focal animals and the auditory signals of neighboring social groups. Using focal-group sampling, we collected 172.5 hr of data on 51 subjects (25 females and 26 males) housed in 10 social groups. We performed two-tailed Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank tests to determine whether the relative frequency of the vocalizations (high vs. low) affected the behaviors. In keeping with past research, we found that agonistic noises and vocalizations from neighboring social groups had a significant effect on the rates of focal-group bluff displays, pant-hoots, and aggression (P<0.05). In addition, we also found significant relationships between grooming behavior and vocalizations in focal groups, and grooming vocalizations from neighboring groups (P<0.05). The results suggest that social contagion is not limited to aggressive behaviors, but also occurs for affiliative behavior patterns.     

Postconflict Affiliation of Aggressors in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Papio hamadryas</Emphasis>

Researchers have associated variation in the occurrence of postconflict behaviors with variation in the relationship quality between involved individuals. Apart from those on the great apes, the vast majority of postconflict studies involved female-bonded species and focused on the victim. We examined postconflict affiliation involving the aggressor in a non-female-bonded species, hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas), and investigated the influence of relationship quality on the occurrence of 2 types of postconflict affiliative behaviors. Hamadryas baboons reconciled after a conflict and the highest rate of reconciliation was between one-male unit (OMU) leader males and their females. Via direct measures of relationship characteristics we also found that partners with higher-quality relationship, e.g., highly affiliative dyads and allies, showed higher levels of conciliatory tendency than dyads with lower-quality relationship, e.g., less affiliative dyads and non-allies. We found evidence of postconflict third-party affiliation initiated by aggressors, but not by third parties. Further, aggressor-initiated affiliation was more likely with individuals of the same OMU and individuals with which the aggressor maintained a strongly affiliative relationship. Our findings provide further support for relationship quality as a fundamental underlying factor not only in reconciliation, but also in postconflict affiliations involving third parties.