大麻素受体系统对视网膜细胞离子通道和突触传递的调控

内源性大麻素系统在脊椎动物视网膜中广泛分布。大麻素受体(cannbinoid receptor)主要有CB1和CB2两个亚型,与内源性配体N-花生四烯酸氨基乙醇(N-arachidonoylethanolamide,anandamine,AEA)和2-花生四烯酸甘油(2-arachidonyl glycerol,2-AG)结合调控视网膜神经元和胶质细胞的功能,从而参与调控视网膜视觉信息的处理。本文结合我们研究组近年在视网膜大麻素受体系统的研究结果,综述了有关大麻素CB1和CB2受体对视网膜细胞离子通道和突触传递调控及其机制的研究进展。     

大麻素受体在胃肠运动调节中的作用

七次跨膜G蛋白偶联的大麻素受体至少有CB1和CB2两种亚型.尽管两种CB受体在胃肠道的分布不尽相同,但多数分布于肠神经系统.CB1受体激活可通过神经机制抑制瞬时下食管括约肌松弛,抑制小肠收缩和蠕动,减慢胃肠运动.CB2可能与一些特殊病理生理条件下胃肠运动的调节有关.这些结果提示CB特别是CB1受体在胃肠运动调节中的作用.     

大麻素受体2在吗啡耐受中的作用

吗啡在疼痛治疗中广泛应用,但其长期使用可以导致耐受,这大大影响了其临床应用价值,吗啡耐受是临床亟待解决的问题。研究发现大麻素受体2(cannabinoid receptor 2,CB2受体)参与吗啡耐受的发生与发展。CB2受体选择性激活剂与吗啡联合使用,可以减弱吗啡诱导产生的痛觉过敏和异常疼痛,抑制吗啡耐受的发生与发展。激活CB2受体抑制吗啡耐受的机制尚未明确,本文将就CB2受体在吗啡耐受中作用的研究现状作一综述。     

大麻和大麻受体与免疫应答

大麻类物质通过与免疫细胞表面抑制性G蛋白偶联受体CB1和CB2结合 ,调节免疫细胞的功能和细胞因子的产生。大麻受体可根据组织分布不同分为中枢型和外周型两类 ,前者主要分布在脑组织中而后者主要分布在免疫细胞表面。绝大多数大麻类物质具有结合两种类型受体的能力 ,而且内源性大麻可以快速通过血脑屏障 ,提示其可能是神经 免疫轴中的活跃递质。     

大麻素受体2与消化系统炎症性疾病

胰腺炎、炎症性肠病等消化系统炎症性疾病是临床的常见病和多发病,目前这些疾病的发病机制不清,临床治疗效果不理想。大麻素受体2(cannabinoid receptor2,CB2)属于G蛋白偶联受体(G-proteincoupledreceptor,GPCR)家族,主要分布于免疫系统。近年来的研究揭示消化系统有CB2的存在,参与调节多种信号通路,而且发挥抗炎作用。本文综述有关CB2在消化系统炎症性疾病中的作用及机制研究的进展,以望为临床相关疾病的治疗提供新思路。     

大麻素2型受体在帕金森病中的神经保护作用研究进展

帕金森病(Parkinson's disease,PD)是一种常见的慢性神经系统退行性疾病,主要病理改变是中脑黑质中的多巴胺能神经元的进行性丧失,以及残存的神经元胞质内出现嗜酸性路易小体。其病因尚未明确,但目前证据表明,帕金森病与神经炎症、氧化应激、遗传和环境等因素有关。大麻素2型受体(cannabinoid receptor type 2,CB2R)是内源性大麻素系统的重要组分,具有较好的抗炎和抗氧化作用,并且没有由CB2R激活引起的精神不良反应。本文阐述了CB2R对帕金森病的抗炎及抗氧化等效应,为预防和治疗帕金森病提供新的理论依据,而且针对CB2R的靶向治疗药物可能更有希望用于预防和治疗帕金森病中的神经炎症和氧化修饰等。     

花生四烯乙醇胺的研究进展

花生四烯乙醇胺（arachidonoylethanolamide,anandamide,ANA）是近年来确定的大麻素受体的内源性配基,它主要分布在中枢神经系统、免疫系统及子宫等部位,具有大麻的主要活性成分--Δ9-四氢大麻酚（Δ9-THC）的药理功能.ANA有两种受体,即脑型受体（CB1）和脾型受体（CB2）,它们都是与GTP偶联的跨膜受体,是ANA发挥作用的主要途径.脂肪酸酰胺水解酶（fattyacidamidehydrolase,FAAH）是ANA特异性极高的水解酶,它可以迅速调节ANA在体内的含量,从而发挥特异的生理作用.     

内源性大麻系统

大麻是当前西方社会服用人数最多的滥用药,其有效成分为△~9－四氢大麻醇。由于脂溶性高,以往认为其作用系改变神经细胞膜磷脂双层的物化性质。后来找到了一些（人工）合成（的）化合物作用更强,但水溶性增加;用它们作为配体证明有受体存在,并已克隆。CB1受体在脑组织,CB2受体在免疫组织,均系G－蛋白偶合型。根据药物→受体→内源性配体的规律,又找到了大麻受体的内源性配体花生四烯酸乙醇胺。至此证明体内存在着内源性大麻系统,使该领域的研究迈进到一崭新的时期。     

阴虚动风证帕金森病异动症大鼠大麻素CB1受体变化及复方地黄方的干预作用

目的探讨阴虚动风证帕金森病(PD)异动症(LID)大鼠纹状体内大麻素CB1受体的表达及复方地黄方的干预作用。方法采用6-羟基多巴胺(6-OHDA)偏侧损毁黑质制备帕金森病大鼠模型,进一步腹腔注射左旋多巴+苄丝肼(50 mg/kg左旋多巴和12.5 mg/kg苄丝肼)制备LID大鼠模型,并随机分为LID组、复方地黄方组,另取正常对照组、假手术组大鼠为对照,每组6只。分别在4周、6周进行神经行为学检测后,处死大鼠并取纹状体,应用Western blot法测定各组大鼠纹状体内大麻素CB1受体的表达情况。结果 LID大鼠随造模时间延长,AIM评分呈增加趋势(P0.05),旋转启动时间呈缩短趋势(P0.05),旋转持续时间呈增加趋势(P0.01),剂峰旋转圈数呈减少趋势(P0.05),复方地黄方可改善上述变化。LID大鼠大麻素CB1受体表达增加,且随造模时间延长呈现减少趋势(P0.01),而复方地黄方干预后大麻素CB1受体的表达呈现逐渐增加的趋势(P0.01)。结论LID模型大鼠大麻素CB1受体的含量明显升高,其变化能够较好的反映阴虚动风证的严重程度,复方地黄方干预LID模型大鼠可能是通过激活纹状体内大麻素CB1受体,抑制兴奋性氨基酸(主要是谷氨酸)的释放和诱导细胞发生级联反应来减弱神经元的兴奋性,从而起到减轻L-dopa的兴奋毒性的作用。     

是这样吗

通过在胚胎肾细胞膜上表达孤儿受体GPR55．阿斯利廉的生物化学家Peter Greasley及其同事们发现GPR55结合的配体与CB1和CB2结合的是一样的．而后两者是已知的大麻素受体。”     

The effects of charge-neutralizing mutation D6.30N on the functions of CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors

Charge-neutralizing mutation D6.30N of the human cannabinoid receptor subtype 1 (CB1) and cannabinoid receptor subtype 2 (CB2) cannabinoid receptors was made to test two hypotheses: (1) D6.30 may be crucial for the functions of CB1 and CB2 receptors. (2) D6.30 may participate in an ionic lock with R3.50 that keeps the receptors in an inactive conformation. Specific ligand binding and ligand-induced inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cAMP accumulation were observed with human embryonic kidney epithelial cell line (HEK293) cells expressing wild-type CB1 and CB2, as well as CB1D6.30N and CB2D6.30N mutant receptors. There was however a decrease in maximum response of the mutant receptors compared to their wild-type counterparts, suggesting that D6.30 is essential for full activation of both CB1 and CB2 receptors. Both CB1D6.30N and CB2D6.30N demonstrated a level of constitutive activity no greater than that of their wild-type counterparts, indicating that either D6.30 does not participate in a salt bridge with R3.50, or the salt bridge is not critical for keeping cannabinoid receptors in the inactive conformation.     

Effects of CB(1) cannabinoid receptor activation on cerebellar granule cell nitric oxide synthase activity.

Cerebellar granule cells (CGCs) express the CB(1) subtype of cannabinoid receptor. CB(1) receptor agonists Win 55212-2, CP55940 and HU210 inhibit KCl-induced activation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) in CGCs. Win 55212-2 has no effect on either basal NOS activity or on activation by N-methyl-D-aspartate and its effect is abolished by pre-treatment of the cells with pertussis toxin. The CB(1) receptor antagonist/inverse agonist SR141716A both reverses the effects of Win 55212-2 and produces an increase in NOS activity that is additive with KCl. These results support the hypothesis that activation of the CB(1) receptor in CGCs results in a decreased influx of calcium in response to membrane depolarization, resulting in a decreased activation of neuronal NOS.     

Synthesis and biological evaluation of several structural analogs of 2-arachidonoylglycerol, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand

2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG (1)) is an endogenous ligand for the cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2). There is growing evidence that 2-arachidonoylglycerol plays important physiological and pathophysiological roles in various mammalian tissues and cells, though the details remain to be clarified. In this study, we synthesized several remarkable analogs of 2-arachidonoylglycerol, closely related in chemical structure to 2-arachidonoylglycerol: an analog containing an isomer of arachidonic acid with migrated olefins (2-AGA118 (3)), an analog containing a one-carbon shortened fatty acyl moiety (2-AGA113 (4)), an analog containing an one-carbon elongated fatty acyl moiety (2-AGA114 (5)), a hydroxy group-containing analog (2-AGA105 (6)), a ketone group-containing analog (2-AGA109 (7)), and a methylene-linked analog (2-AGA104 (8)). We evaluated their biological activities as cannabinoid receptor agonists using NG108-15 cells which express the CB1 receptor and HL-60 cells which express the CB2 receptor. Notably, these structural analogs of 2-arachidonoylglycerol exhibited only weak agonistic activities toward either the CB1 receptor or the CB2 receptor, which is in good contrast to 2-arachidonoylglycerol which acted as a full agonist at these cannabinoid receptors. These results clearly indicate that the structure of 2-arachidonoylglycerol is strictly recognized by the cannabinoid receptors (CB1 and CB2) and provide further evidence that the cannabinoid receptors are primarily the intrinsic receptors for 2-arachidonoylglycerol.     

Modulation of the cannabinoid CB2 receptor in microglial cells in response to inflammatory stimuli

The cannabinoid system is known to be important in neuronal regulation, but is also capable of modulating immune function. Although the CNS resident microglial cells have been shown to express the CB2 subtype of cannabinoid receptor during non-immune-mediated pathological conditions, little is known about the expression of the cannabinoid system during immune-mediated CNS pathology. To examine this question, we measured CB2 receptor mRNA expression in the CNS of mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and, by real-time PCR, found a 100-fold increase in CB2 receptor mRNA expression during EAE onset. We next determined whether microglial cells specifically express the CB2 receptor during EAE, and found that activated microglial cells expressed 10-fold more CB2 receptor than microglia in the resting state. To determine the signals required for the up-regulation of the CB2 receptor, we cultured microglial cells with combinations of gamma-interferon (IFN-gamma) and granulocyte) macrophage-colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF), which both promote microglial cell activation and are expressed in the CNS during EAE, and found that they synergized, resulting in an eight to 10-fold increase in the CB2 receptor. We found no difference in the amount of the CB2 receptor ligand, 2-arachidonylglycerol (2-AG), in the spinal cord during EAE. These data demonstrate that microglial cell activation is accompanied by CB2 receptor up-regulation, suggesting that this receptor plays an important role in microglial cell function in the CNS during autoimmune-induced inflammation.     

Purification and mass spectroscopic analysis of human CB2 cannabinoid receptor expressed in the baculovirus system.

The cannabinergic system is present in a variety of organs and tissues that perform a wide range of essential physiologic functions making it an inherently important therapeutic target for drug discovery. In order to augment our knowledge regarding the interactions between cannabinoid receptors (CBs) and their ligands, efficient and effective tools are essential for robust expression and purification of these membrane-bound proteins. In this report, we describe a suitable method for purification of the human cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2) to a qualitative and quantitative level sufficient for mass spectral analysis. We utilized a baculovirus expression system, incorporating several epitope tags to facilitate purification and to ameliorate the effect the tags have on CB2 expression and function. Expressed protein encoded by a carboxy (C)-terminal His-tagged CB2 construct displayed a B(max) value of 9.3 pmol/mg with a K(D) of 7.30 nM using [3(H)]CP-55(940), a standard cannabinoid radioligand, and was selected for subsequent purification experiments. Western blot analysis of purified membrane protein yielded several forms of CB2, the most abundant being a 41 kDa peptide. A second protein species was observed with an apparent molecular weight of 46 kDa representing a glycosylated form of CB2. In addition, a CB2 homodimer was also identified. The purified receptor was subjected to mass spectroscopic analysis to confirm its identity and purity. Mass spectra corresponding to the intracellular, extracellular and transmembrane domains were obtained. These experiments exemplify the importance of high-level expression systems when developing membrane-bound protein purification strategies. This work will aid in the identification of receptor-ligand binding sites, the characterization of molecular features involved in receptor activation, and the elucidation of the CB2 receptor tertiary structure.     

3D structural model of the G-protein-coupled cannabinoid CB2 receptor

The potential for therapeutic specificity in regulating diseases and for reduced side effects has made cannabinoid (CB) receptors one of the most important G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) targets for drug discovery. The cannabinoid (CB) receptor subtype CB2 is of particular interest due to its involvement in signal transduction in the immune system and its increased characterization by mutational and other studies. However, our understanding of their mode of action has been limited by the absence of an experimental receptor structure. In this study, we have developed a 3D model of the CB2 receptor based on the recent crystal structure of a related GPCR, bovine rhodopsin. The model was developed using multiple sequence alignment of homologous receptor sub-types in humans and mammals, and compared with other GPCRs. Alignments were analyzed with mutation scores, pairwise hydrophobicity profiles and Kyte-Doolittle plots. The 3D model of the transmembrane segment was generated by mapping the CB2 sequence onto the homologous residues of the rhodopsin structure. The extra- and intracellular loop regions of the CB2 were generated by searching for homologous C(alpha) backbone sequences in published structures in the Brookhaven Protein Databank (PDB). Residue side chains were positioned through a combination of rotamer library searches, simulated annealing and minimization. Intermediate models of the 7TM helix bundles were analyzed in terms of helix tilt angles, hydrogen-bond networks, conserved residues and motifs, possible disulfide bonds. The amphipathic cytoplasmic helix domain was also correlated with biological and site-directed mutagenesis data. Finally, the model receptor-binding cavity was characterized using solvent-accessible surface approach.     

Synthesis and biological evaluation of 1,8-naphthyridin-4(1H)-on-3-carboxamide derivatives as new ligands of cannabinoid receptors

Cannabinoid receptors have been studied extensively in view of their potential functional role in several physiological and pathological processes. For this reason, the search for new potent, selective ligands for subtype CB receptors, CB(1) and CB(2), is still of great importance, in order to investigate their role in various physiological functions. The present study describes the synthesis and the biological properties of a series of 1,8-naphthyridine derivatives, characterised by the presence of some important structural requirements exhibited by other classes of cannabinoid ligands, such as an aliphatic or aromatic carboxamide group in position 3, and an alkyl or arylalkyl substituent in position 1. These compounds were assayed for binding both to the brain and to peripheral cannabinoid receptors (CB(1) and CB(2)). The results obtained indicate that the naphthyridine derivatives examined possess a greater affinity for the CB(2) receptor than for the CB(1) receptor. In particular, derivatives 6a and 7a possess an appreciable affinity for the CB(2) receptor, with K(i) values of 5.5 and 8.0 nM respectively; also compounds 4a, 5a and 8a exhibit a good CB(2) affinity, with K(i) values in the range of 10-44 nM. Furthermore, compounds 3g-i and 18 revealed a good CB(2) selectivity, with a CB(1)/CB(2) ratio >20.     

A transmembrane helix-bundle from G-protein coupled receptor CB2: biosynthesis, purification, and NMR characterization

The cannabinoid receptor subtype 2 (CB2) is a member of the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. As the relationship between structure and function for this receptor remains poorly understood, the present study was undertaken to characterize the structure of a segment including the first and second transmembrane helix (TM1 and TM2) domains of CB2. To accomplish this, a transmembrane double-helix bundle from this region was expressed, purified, and characterized by NMR. Milligrams of this hydrophobic fragment of the receptor were biosynthesized using a fusion protein overexpression strategy and purified by affinity chromatography combined with reverse phase HPLC. Chemical and enzymatic cleavage methods were implemented to remove the fusion tag. The resultant recombinant protein samples were analyzed and confirmed by HPLC, mass spectrometry, and circular dichroism (CD). The CD analyses of HPLC-purified protein in solution and in DPC micelle preparations suggested predominant alpha-helical structures under both conditions. The 13C/15N double-labeled protein CB2(27-101) was further verified and analyzed by NMR spectroscopy. Sequential assignment was accomplished for more than 80% of residues. The 15N HSQC NMR results show a clear chemical shift dispersion of the amide nitrogen-proton correlation indicative of a pure double-labeled polypeptide molecule. The results suggest that this method is capable of generating transmembrane helical bundles from GPCRs in quantity and purity sufficient for NMR and other biophysical studies. Therefore, the biosynthesis of GPCR transmembrane helix bundles represents a satisfactory alternative strategy to obtain and assemble NMR structures from recombinant "building blocks."     

CB(1) cannabinoid receptor-G protein association: a possible mechanism for differential signaling

Effects of cannabinoid compounds on neurons are predominantly mediated by the CB(1) cannabinoid receptor. Onset of signaling cascades in response to cannabimimetic drugs is triggered by the interaction of the cannabinoid receptor with G(i/o) proteins. Much work has been done to delineate the cannabinoid agonist-induced downstream signaling events; however, it remains to define the molecular basis of cannabinoid receptor-G protein interactions that stimulate these signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss several signal transduction pathways, focusing on studies that demonstrate the efficacy of CB(1) receptor agonists through G protein mediated pathways.