Hot-water treatments for control of Planococcus ficus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on dormant grape cuttings

Hot-water immersions were tested for control of mealybug Planococcus ficus (Signoret), on dormant grape cuttings used for nursery stock. A range of hot-water temperatures (47-58 degrees C) were evaluated at immersion periods of 2, 5, 10, or 20 min, by using a total of 353,720 mealybugs across all treatments. A 5-min immersion at 51 degrees C is effective in killing > 99% of P. ficus. At or above this immersion period and temperature, there was no difference in mealybug stage mortality. We evaluated a commercial operation, which used a 5-min immersion in each of three water tanks: preheating (30.0 +/- 3 degrees C), hot-water (52.8 +/- 0.3 degrees C), and cooling (23 +/- 3 degrees C). The commercial procedure provided 99.8-100% mealybug control in each of three separate trials.     

Hot-water immersion quarantine treatment against Mediterranean fruit fly and Oriental fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) eggs and larvae in litchi and longan fruit exported from Hawaii

Immersion of litchi fruit in 49 degrees C water for 20 min followed by hydrocooling in ambient (24 +/- 4 degrees C) temperature water for 20 min was tested as a quarantine treatment against potential infestations of Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann); and oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel, eggs or larvae in Hawaiian litchi, Litchi chinensis Sonnerat. The 49 degrees C hot-water immersion of litchi provided probit 9 (99.9968% mortality with >95% confidence) quarantine security against eggs and first instars. There were no survivors from 15,000 each feeding and nonfeeding Mediterranean fruit fly or oriental fruit fly third instars immersed in a computer-controlled water bath that simulated the litchi seed-surface temperature profile during the 49 degrees C hot-water immersion treatment. Litchi served as the model for longan, Dimocarpus longan Lour., a closely related fruit that is smaller and also has commercial potential for Hawaii. Modified fruit infestation and holding techniques used to obtain adequate estimated treated populations from poor host fruit, such as litchi and longan, are described. Data from these experiments were used to obtain approval of a hot-water immersion quarantine treatment against fruit flies for litchi and longan exported from Hawaii to the U.S. mainland.     

Hot water immersion to ensure quarantine security for Cryptophlebia spp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in lychee and longan exported from Hawaii.

We determined whether immersion in 49 degrees C water for 20 min, a quarantine treatment developed for disinfestation of fruit flies in lychee, Litchi chinensis Sonn., and longan, Dimocarpus longan (Lourd.) Steud., exported from Hawaii, would also disinfest fruit of two species of Cryptophlebia. The pattern of tolerance to heat in Cryptophlebia illepida (Butler) was generally eggs < neonates < early instars = late instars < pupae. No C. illepida survived immersion for 16 or 20 min. Late fourth and fifth instars were determined to be the most tolerant stage that occurs in harvested fruit. Late instars of Cryptophlebia ombrodelta (Lower) were more tolerant of hot-water immersion than those of C. illepida, but no C. ombrodelta late instars survived immersion for 16 or 20 min. The hot water immersion quarantine treatment for fruit flies should effectively disinfest lychees and longans of any Cryptophlebia.     

Oviposition responses of Queensland fruit fly (Bactrocera tryoni) to mineral oil deposits on tomato fruit

Behavioural responses of wild and laboratory‐culture females of Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae), to mineral oil deposits on tomato fruit dipped in aqueous oil emulsions were assessed in a no‐choice test and three choice tests. The oils were two commercial products used to manage plant pests and diseases, Ampol D‐C‐Tron NR and SK EnSpray 99, one distillation fraction of the base oil of the former, and four distillation fractions of the base oil of the latter. The initial and final boiling points of the fractions were equivalent to those of n‐alkanes with chain lengths of C20–22 (Ampol), and C21–C23, C22–23.5, C22–24, and C22–24.5 (SK). For both fly types in the no‐choice test, numbers of punctures and eggs per fruit declined strongly as concentrations of the nC20–22 Ampol fraction in emulsions rose from 0.25 to 2% (vol/vol). Fly type affected the extent of responses but there was no significant interaction for fly type*oil concentration. Responses of laboratory‐culture females in the choice tests also declined as concentrations of SK and the four fractions of its base oil in emulsions rose from 0 to 0.25%. The SK nC22–24 and nC22–24.5 fractions had least impact. Responses of laboratory‐culture flies to 0.5% emulsions of the nC20–22 Ampol fraction and the nC21–23 SK fraction in choice tests were not significantly different. Likewise, responses of laboratory‐culture flies to 0.5% emulsions of the two commercial products were not significantly different. Emulsifier type did not affect numbers of punctures or eggs per fruit in choice responses of laboratory‐culture flies to 0.5% emulsions of the Ampol nC20–22 fraction or 0.5% emulsions of the SK nC21–23 fraction. If the equivalence of no‐choice and choice responses in the laboratory were to hold in the field, then unsprayed ‘sacrificial’ plants would not be necessary and oil emulsions could be used as cover sprays.     

Hot water immersion for surface disinfestation of Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

Mealybug Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) adults, nymphs, crawlers, and eggs were tested for their susceptibility to hot water immersion at 47, 48, and 49 degrees C. Eggs inside ovisacs were found most tolerant with prolonged survival compared with other stages at all temperatures. Ovisacs required an average of 1.38, 1.46, and 1.62 times longer treatment duration than adults, nymphs, and crawlers, respectively, for 99.9% predicted mortality at 47, 48, and 49 degrees C. Lethal time estimations were calculated from inverse predictions of regressions derived from logit-transformed data as well as those created using a kinetic model. LT 99.9 estimations were 47.0, 21.2, and 11.9 min at 47, 48, and 49 degrees C, respectively, by using regressions with logit transformations. The kinetic model predictions were 43.9, 19.6, and 11.1 min at 47, 48, and 49 degrees C, respectively. During the study no emergence from eggs inside ovisacs was found after treatments of 52, 24, and 14 min at 47, 48, and 49 degrees C, respectively. Results from this study provide efficacious temperature-time treatments.     

Human initial responses to immersion in cold water at three temperatures and after hyperventilation

The present investigation was designed to examine the influence of water temperature and prior hyperventilation on some of the potentially hazardous responses evoked by immersion in cold water. Eight naked subjects performed headout immersions of 2-min duration into stirred water at 5, 10, and 15 degrees C and at 10 degrees C after 1 min of voluntary hyperventilation. Analysis of the respiratory and cardiac data collected during consecutive 10-s periods showed that, at the 0.18-m/s rate of immersion employed, differences between the variables recorded on immersion in water at 5 and 10 degrees C were due to the duration of the responses evoked rather than their magnitude during the first 20 s. The exception to this was the tidal volume of subjects, which was higher on immersion in water at 15 degrees C than at 5 or 10 degrees C. The results suggested that the respiratory drive evoked during the first seconds of immersion was more closely reflected in the rate rather than the depth of breathing at this time. Hyperventilation before immersion in water at 10 degrees C did not attenuate the respiratory responses seen on immersion. It is concluded that, during the first critical seconds of immersion, the initial responses evoked by immersion in water at 10 degrees C can represent as great a threat as those in water at 5 degrees C; also, in water at 10 degrees C, the respiratory component of this threat is not influenced by the biochemical alterations associated with prior hyperventilation.     

Postharvest heat and cold treatment to control Ceratitis capitata on cactus pear fruit

In order to work out a quarantine treatment for cactus pear fruit a factorial experimental plan was carried combining postharvest water dips at 20, 50, 54, 58 and 60 degrees C and storage at 1 degrees C for 3, 6 and 10 days. Cactus pear fruit cv 'Rossa' were artificially infested with Med. fly eggs (at least 20 eggs per fruit) then left in the lab at 25 degrees C for 4 days. Treatments took place by dipping the fruit at each water temperature for 2 mm. At each established time fruit was picked and checked for vital larvae and degree of chilling injury (CI). Probit 9 requirements were achieved in all cases when fruit was cold-stored for 10 days. When fruit was kept for 6 days the quarantine requirement was achieved only by dipping the fruit at 58 and 60 degrees C while none dip treatment was effective if fruit was stored for 3 days at 1 degrees C. All Fruit stored for 10 days at 1 degrees C showed severe CI symptoms and when kept for 6 days the same degree of CI was found on fruit dipped in water at 20, 58 and 60 degrees C. No CI was observed after 3 days at 1 degrees C. In conclusion only when fruit was dipped at 50-54 degrees C and stored for 10 days at 1 degrees C the probit 9 condition was attained with acceptable CI symptoms.     

Vapor heat treatment for quarantine control of the oriental fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) in papaya fruit from Thailand

A two-stage vapor heat treatment (VHT) is used commercially for disinfestation of the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in various tropical fruits exported from Thailand to international markets. In the present study, VHT was tested against B. dorsalis in papayas to confirm a high level of quarantine security. The first instar larva of B. dorsalis was the most heat tolerant life stage. The VHT consists of heating papaya fruits with hot air at 50–80 % RH from ambient temperature to a fruit center temperature of 43 °C (dry pre-heating period), then heating with saturated hot air to 47 °C (wet heating period) with a 20-min hold at 47°. In large-scale confirmatory tests of this VHT treatment schedule, none of the treated 78,405 first instar larvae survived. Papayas at the color break maturity stage treated by VHT and held under simulated commercial export conditions showed no differences in fruit quality compared with non-treated controls. VHT showed high efficacy in disinfestation of papayas of B. dorsalis while maintaining fruit quality and could be used as a standard quarantine treatment for papaya exported from Thailand.     

Effect of alcohol on thermal balance of man in cold water.

The effects of alcohol on core cooling rates (rectal and tympanic), skin temperatures, and metabolic rate were determined for 10 subjects rendered hypothermic by immersion for 45 min in 10 degrees C water. Experiments were duplicated with and without a 20-min period of exercise at the beginning of cold water immersion. Measurements were continued during rewarming in a hot bath. With blood alcohol concentrations averaging 82 mg 100 mL-1, core cooling rates and changes in skin temperatures were insignificantly different from controls, even if the exercise period was imposed. Alcohol reduced shivering metabolic rate by an overall mean of 13%, insufficient to affect cooling rate. Alcohol had no effect on metabolic rate during exercise. During rewarming by hot bath, the amount of 'afterdrop' and rate of increase in core temperature were unaffected by alcohol. It was concluded that alcohol in a moderate dosage does not influence the rate of progress into hypothermia or subsequent, efficient rewarming. This emphasizes that the high incidence of alcohol involvement in water-related fatalities is due to alcohol potentiation of accidents rather than any direct effects on cold water survival, although very high doses of alcohol leading to unconsciousness would increase rate of progress into hypothermia.     

Control of local heat gain by vasomotor response of the hand

Finger blood flow (BF) was measured by venous occlusion plethysmography using mercury-in-Silastic strain gauges during immersion of one hand in hot water (raised by steps of 2 degrees C every 10 min from 35 to 43 degrees C), the other being a control (kept immersed in water at 35 degrees C). The measurements were made in three different thermal states on separate days: 1) cool-25 degrees C, 40% rh, esophageal temperature (Tes) = 36.64 +/- 0.10 degrees C; 2) warm-35 degrees C, 40% rh, Tes = 36.71 +/- 0.11 degrees C; and 3) hot-35 degrees C, 80% rh with the legs immersed in water at 42 degrees C, Tes = 37.26 +/- 0.11 degrees C. When water temperature was raised at 42 degrees C, Tes = 37.26 +/- 0.11 When water temperature was raised to 39-41 degrees C in the warm state, finger BF in the hand heated locally (BFw) decreased. When water temperature was raised to 43 degrees C, however, BFw returned to the control value. In the hot state, Tes rose steadily, reaching 37.90 +/- 0.12 degrees C at the end of the 50-min sessions. BF in the control finger also increased gradually during the session. BFw showed a tendency to decrease when water temperature was raised to 39 degrees C, but the change was not greater than that observed in the warm state. In the cool state, no such reduction in BFw was observed when water temperature was raised to 39-41 degrees C. On the contrary, BFw increased at water temperatures of 41-43 degrees C.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

矿物油乳剂拒避橘小实蝇的有效组分分析

高品质的矿物油乳剂可用于有机食品生产,在害虫综合治理中有良好的应用前景。矿物油是包含多种化学成分的混合物,其组成成分和比例决定其理化性质并关系到其防治病虫害的效果。已有研究报道表明,矿物油乳剂对许多害虫有拒避作用,但其机理及相关性组成成分尚未研究清楚。本实验测定了4种矿物油乳剂即SK绿颖农用喷洒油、加德士-路易夏用油、安波尔喷洒油、法夏乐石蜡油（分别简称为SK,Caltex,Ampol和Citrole油）和Caltex油＜120℃,＞120℃,＜105℃,105~120℃及SK油＜110℃、＞110℃等6种分子蒸馏组分的正构烷烃碳数当量nCy值、碳数分布值及其对橘小实蝇Bactrocera dorsalis的产卵拒避效果。室内生物测定结果显示,橘小实蝇在SK,Caltex,Ampol和Citrole油0.5%水乳液及清水浸蘸处理后的香蕉上平均产卵孔数分别为17.850±1.282,3.400±0.630,15.850±1.439,20.650±1.212和19.050±1.155,在同样方法处理的阳桃上平均产卵孔数分别为15.500±3.969,3.000±0.707,13.750±4.131,17.250±4.385和62.000±4.708。橘小实蝇在6种分子蒸馏组分0.5%水乳液处理后的香蕉上的平均产卵孔数分别为4.400±1.166,8.200±0.583,5.400±1.720,2.400±1.077,4.800±1.594和12.200±2.63,显示不同矿物油的拒避效果差异显著（P<0.05）,拒避效果最好的矿物油的正构烷烃碳数当量nCy值在nC23左右.矿物油对橘小实蝇的产卵拒避效果与其相应的碳数分布值的Spearman等级相关性分析显示,其拒避效果与矿物油中的C23组分的含量呈显著正相关关系（P<0.05）。这可为进一步分析矿物油乳剂拒避害虫的作用成分和探索其机理提供参考。     

Postharvest behaviour of five Sardinian prune varieties as affected by immersion in heated sodium bicarbonate solution

Storage behaviour of 'Core', 'Core Columbu', 'Fradis' and 'Meloni' white prunes, and a black one ('Sighera') of Sardinian germplasm were evaluated following immersion for 0 (control), 15, 30, 45 or 60 sec in water at 20, 50, 55 or 60 degrees C with or without 2% (w/v) NaHCO3 (SBC). As international varieties, fruit from one white plum ('Shiro') and one black prune ('Stanly') were subjected to the same treatments. Fruit was harvested at commercial maturity, treated and then stored for 1 month at 5 degrees C and 90% RH followed by a simulated marketing period at 20 degrees C and 80% RH for 6 days. Fruit appearance, external damage, firmness and decay percentage were monitored after storage and SMP. Treatments did not induce rind damage (browning or discoloration) to any variety. SBC at 20, 45, 50 or 55 degrees C for 15 or 30 sec was not effective in controlling decay and compared to controls no improvement was observed. Immersion for 45 or 60 sec with SBC at all temperatures improved decay control with respect to controls and best results were obtained at 50 or 55 degrees C. Immersions at 60 degrees C improved decay control, but differences were not significant compared to the control attained with solutions of SBC heated at 55 degrees C. The overall appearance of 'Core', 'Core Columbu', 'Fradis' and 'Shiro' decreased significantly after the SMP period, especially when treated at 55 or 60 degrees C for 60 sec. Fruit shrivel was the main cause of the low rating. SBC did not affect shrivel indicating that heat treatment may be the probable cause. In general, local varieties were less affected by decay than other varieties and they performed well during storage.     

Effect of water temperature on cooling efficiency during hyperthermia in humans.

We evaluated the cooling rate of hyperthermic subjects, as measured by rectal temperature (T(re)), during immersion in a range of water temperatures. On 4 separate days, seven subjects (4 men, 3 women) exercised at 65% maximal oxygen consumption at an ambient temperature of 39 degrees C until T(re) increased to 40 degrees C (45.4 +/- 4.1 min). After exercise, the subjects were immersed in a circulated water bath controlled at 2, 8, 14, or 20 degrees C until T(re) returned to 37.5 degrees C. No difference in cooling rate was observed between the immersions at 8, 14, and 20 degrees C despite the differences in the skin surface-to-water temperature gradient, possibly because of the presence of shivering at 8 and 14 degrees C. Compared with the other conditions, however, the rate of cooling (0.35 +/- 0.14 degrees C/min) was significantly greater during the 2 degrees C water immersion, in which shivering was seldom observed. This rate was almost twice as much as the other conditions (P < 0.05). Our results suggest that 2 degrees C water is the most effective immersion treatment for exercise-induced hyperthermia.     

Limonene, a citrus extract, for control of mealybugs and scale insects

In a series of bioassays with mealybugs, aqueous solutions of 1% limonene were tested that used from 0.50 to 1.50% all purpose spray adjuvant (APSA)-80 as an emulsifier/surfactant. The two ingredients were added to water or to 0.1% Silwet L-77, an agricultural surfactant. Using 1% limonene, 0.75% APSA-80 and 0.1% Silwet L-77, a semitransparent mixture (primarily a microemulsion) was obtained that was safe for most plants and provided good control of mealybugs when sprayed or used in 1-min dips. Used at half strength, this mixture controlled > or =99% of whiteflies, whereas the full-strength mixture controlled from 69 to 100% of mealybugs and scales, including > or =93% control of root mealybugs. In side-by-side greenhouse tests, this mixture was superior to a 2% solution of insecticidal soap or a 2% solution of horticultural spray oil. Mortality of green scales on potted gardenia plants averaged 95, 89, and 88% on plants sprayed with limonene, insecticidal soap, or horticultural oil, respectively. In a related test, these same sprays killed 44.1, 22.7, or 12.5% of third and fourth instar clustering mealybugs, respectively. Limonene has promise as a safe, natural pesticide for insect pests on tolerant plants. Although 1% limonene solutions damaged certain species of ferns, gingers and delicate flowers, they caused no damage to ornamentals with thick, waxy leaves, such as palms, cycads, and orchids.     

Behavioural responses of female Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni, to mineral oil deposits

Behavioural responses of Queensland fruit fly, Bactrocera tryoni (Froggatt) (Diptera: Tephritidae), females to fruit dipped in water and fruit dipped in 0.5% (vol/vol) aqueous emulsions of a mineral oil were determined and analysed. The mineral oil was an nC20–22 distillation fraction of the base oil used to produce an nC23 horticultural mineral oil. Females caged with oil‐treated fruit had significantly longer prelanding intervals than females caged with water‐dipped fruit. The latter was attacked immediately or shortly after being caged with flies whereas some oil‐dipped fruit was not attacked within 180 min. The percentage of landings that led to oviposition on water‐ and oil‐treated fruit were 58 and 13%, respectively, and the percentages ovipositing after probing were 74 and 25%, respectively. Likewise, average times spent probing were 7 vs. 31 s whereas average times spent ovipositing were 321 vs. 223 s. Females spent less than half as much time on oil‐treated fruit than on water‐treated fruit. Transition probabilities of rejection, when applied to the behaviour sequence indicated that oil‐treated fruits are about nine times less likely to be infested with B. tryoni.     

Postharvest heat and conditioning treatments activate different molecular responses and reduce chilling injuries in grapefruit

A combination of hot water (a rinse at 62 degrees C for 20 s) and conditioning (pre-storage at 16 degrees C for 7 d) treatments synergistically reduced chilling injury development in grapefruit (Citrus paradisi, cv. "Star Ruby") during cold storage at 2 degrees C, suggesting that the treatments may activate different chilling tolerance responses. To study the molecular mechanisms involved, chilling- and conditioning-responsive genes were isolated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) cDNA subtraction, cDNA libraries were constructed from hot water- and conditioning-treated fruit, and cDNA sequencing was used to identify putative stress-responsive and chilling tolerance genes. PCR cDNA subtraction revealed the identification of 17 chilling-responsive and heat- and conditioning-induced genes, and the expression patterns of 11 additional stress-related genes, antioxidant defensive genes, and genes encoding enzymes involved in membrane lipid modifications were characterized. It was found that hot water and conditioning treatments had little effect on gene expression by themselves, but rather had a priming effect, and enabled the fruit to activate their defence responses after subsequent exposure to chilling. RNA gel blot hybridizations revealed that the expression patterns of eight genes, including HSP19-I, HSP19-II, dehydrin, universal stress protein (USP), EIN2, 1,3;4-beta-D-glucanase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), were specifically regulated by the heat treatment, and four genes, including fatty acid desaturase2 (FAD2) and lipid transfer protein (LTP), were specifically regulated by the conditioning treatment. Furthermore, four more genes were identified, including a translation initiation factor (SUI1), a chaperonin, and alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), that were commonly regulated by both heat and conditioning treatments. According to these data, it is suggested that pre-storage heat and conditioning treatments may enhance fruit chilling tolerance by activating different molecular mechanisms. The hot water treatment activates mainly the expression of various stress-related genes, whereas the conditioning treatment activates mainly the expression of lipid membrane modification enzymes.     

Production and characterization of functional substances from a by-product of rice bran oil and protein production by a compressed hot water treatment

A by-product of rice bran oil and protein production was treated with water and compressed hot water at 20 degrees C to 260 degrees C for 5 min, and at 200 degrees C and 260 degrees C for 5 to 120 min. Each extract was evaluated for its yield, radical scavenging activity, carbohydrate, protein, total phenolic and furfural contents, molecular-mass distribution and antioxidative activity. The maximum yield was obtained at 200 degrees C. The radical scavenging activity and the protein, total phenolic and furfural contents of the extract increased with increasing temperature. However, the carbohydrate content abruptly decreased when treated at above 200 degrees C. The extract treated at 260 degrees C for 5 min exhibited suppressive activity toward the autoxidation of linoleic acid. Each extract obtained at temperatures lower than or equal to 200 degrees C exhibited emulsifying ability.     

Forced hot-air treatment against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bactrocera papayae</Emphasis> (Diptera: Tephritidae) in papaya

The Asian papaya fruit fly, Bactrocera papayae Drew and Hancock, was treated with hot-water immersion and forced hot air to develop a phytosanitary heat treatment schedule. Hot-water immersion tests were conducted with 12- and 24-h-old eggs and with first and third instar larvae to compare the relative thermotolerances of this fruit fly among these life stages. The 24-h-old eggs, the most thermotolerant among the four life stages tested, were subjected to time and temperature tests using cage-infested papaya fruits in a forced hot-air chamber. Heating the papayas to a minimum core temperature of 47.7 °C (95% confidence interval 47.2–48.3 °C) was estimated to induce probit-nine mortality based on a probit analysis of the data. Confirmatory tests in which papayas infested with 24-h-old eggs were heated to a minimum fruit core temperature of 47.2 °C that was maintained for 0–30 min followed by hydrocooling to a fruit core temperature of ≈25 °C resulted in the complete mortality of an estimated treated population of 43,425 eggs aged 24 h (99.9931% mortality at the 95% confidence level). Therefore, heating the papaya fruits to a core temperature of 47.2 °C for a minimum dwell time of 30 min, which was the longest dwell time in the confirmatory tests, may serve as a phytosanitary heat treatment schedule for the control of B. papayae in papaya fruits.     

Early fluid and protein shifts in men during water immersion

High precision blood and plasma densitometry was used to measure transvascular fluid shifts during water immersion to the neck. Six men (28-49 years) undertook 30 min of standing immersion in water at 35.0 +/- 0.2 degrees C; immersion was preceded by 30 min control standing in air at 28 +/- 1 degrees C. Blood was sampled from an antecubital catheter for determination of blood density (BD), plasma density (PD), haematocrit (Ht), total plasma protein concentration (PPC), and plasma albumin concentration (PAC). Compared to control, significant decreases (p less than 0.01) in all these measures were observed after 20 min immersion. At 30 min, plasma volume had increased by 11.0 +/- 2.8%; the average density of the fluid shifted from extravascular fluid into the vascular compartment was 1006.3 g.l-1; albumin moved with the fluid and its albumin concentration was about one-third of the plasma protein concentration during early immersion. These calculations are based on the assumption that the F-cell ratio remained unchanged. No changes in erythrocyte water content during immersion were found. Thus, immersion-induced haemodilution is probably accompanied by protein (mainly albumin) augmentation which accompanies the intravascular fluid shift.     

Potential of temperature, controlled atmospheres, and ozone fumigation to control thrips and mealybugs on ornamental plants for export

Ozone (O3) fumigation is a potential quarantine treatment alternative for controlling stored-product pests and surface insect pests on fresh agricultural commodities. We explored the effects of temperature, treatment time, controlled atmospheres, and vacuum in combination with O3 to control two important pests of ornamental crops: western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), and longtailed mealybug, Pseudococcus longispinus Targioni Tozzetti. Treatment parameters tested were O3 concentrations from 0 to 3,800 ppm, treatment durations were from 30 to 120 min, vacuums were from 0 to 0.41 bar below ambient, temperatures were from 32.2 to 40.6 degrees C, and controlled atmospheres were composed primarily of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or breathing air [BA]. Treatment efficacy was enhanced by higher O3 concentration and temperature, lower oxygen, and longer treatment times. Reduced pressure was not an important factor. Mealybugs were more difficult to kill than thrips. A 30-min treatment of O3 at approximately 200 ppm in 100% CO2 at 37.8 degrees C killed 47.9 and 98.0% of mealybugs and adult female thrips, respectively. All of the ornamentals tested were damaged to some degree by O3 treatments. However, crops with thick leaves such as orchids exhibited little damage, and the waxy portions of certain flowers were not damaged. The results suggest that O3 has potential as a quarantine treatment to control thrips and mealybugs on selected commodities.