高寒山区不同土地利用类型土壤养分化学计量特征及影响因素

了解高寒地区不同土地利用类型下土壤养分化学计量特征及其影响因素可为评估脆弱生态系统土壤质量和功能提供参数。通过测定青海省东部24个样点0—30 cm土壤基本理化性质(pH、容重BD、孔隙度P_s、黏粒含量C_y、土壤含水量SWC、有机碳SOC、全氮TN、全磷TP、速效氮AN和速效磷AP),并提取各样点环境因子数据(年均温MAT、年均降雨量MAP、年均蒸发量E_a、植被归一化指数NDVI、海拔ALT、坡度SG、地表粗糙度SR、经度LON和纬度LAT),分析了农、林、草三种土地利用类型下土壤养分化学计量比分布特征及其影响因素。结果表明,农地土壤有机碳SOC和全氮TN含量显著低于林地和草地(P<0.05),而全磷TP和速效磷AP含量则相反,农、林、草地速效氮AN含量无显著差异(P>0.05)。农、林、草地不同深度土壤C∶N(平均值19.93,变异系数<16%)和AN∶AP(平均值2.73,变异系数<71%)较为稳定且无显著差异(P>0.05),而农地C∶P和N∶P(平均值分别为19.27和0.99)却显...     

拉萨河流域洪积扇不同植被类型土壤化学计量特征

洪积扇是拉萨河流域珍贵的土地资源,而明悉其土壤养分状况是对其进行科学合理开发利用的基础。为此,在拉萨河流域选取了10个洪积扇,于2020年7-8月调查了其上的植物群落组成并采集对应土壤,测定了土壤有机碳（SOC）、全氮（TN）、全磷（TP）、全钾（TK）、碱解氮（AN）、速效磷（AP）和速效钾（AK）的含量并计算其化学计量比。结果表明：10个洪积扇的60个样方中共发现植物种87种,分属于29科79属,其中禾本科和菊科的物种居多;洪积扇SOC、TN、TP、AN和AK的平均含量分别为34.38 g/kg、2.77 g/kg、0.39 g/kg、130.78 mg/kg和189.79 mg/kg,均表现为草地>灌丛>农田,其中SOC、TN、AN和AP含量在草地和农田下差异显著（P<0.05）;土壤TK的平均含量为19.68 g/kg,表现为农田>草地>灌丛;土壤AP的平均含量为3.36 mg/kg,表现为农田>灌丛>草地;土壤C：N的均值为12.75,表现为农田>灌丛>草地;土壤C：P、N：P和N：K的均值分别为102.50、8.10和0.16,均表现为草地>灌丛>农田,总体来说洪积扇土壤P元素较为稀缺;土壤N：K与SOC、TN、TP、TK、AN、AP、AK均极显著相关（P<0.01）,SOC和TN与植物群落盖度极显著正相关（P<0.01）;典范对应分析（CCA）进一步表明土壤养分及其计量比对洪积扇植物群落组成影响显著（P=0.002）,且TP、K：P和AP是影响洪积扇植物群落组成的主要土壤生态化学计量因子。综上所述,拉萨河流域洪积扇植物种相对丰富,但分布不均匀,组成不稳定。SOC、TN、TK含量相对较高但C：N值低,表现为有机质矿化速率高而土壤肥力低下;土壤TP和AP的含量均较低,洪积扇植物群落在生长发育过程中受到土壤P元素的限制。此外,研究还发现土壤N：K同C：N：P一样可作为评价土壤养分状况的生态化学计量指标。     

科尔沁沙地不同土地利用类型土壤化学计量特征

土壤碳(C)、氮(N)、磷(P)化学计量是衡量土壤质量及生态系统元素限制的重要指标,探讨土地利用和土层深度对土壤化学计量特征的影响有利于揭示科尔沁沙地土壤元素循环规律。本研究以科尔沁沙地5种土地利用类型(灌溉农田、旱作农田、沙质草地、固定沙丘、流动沙丘)土壤为对象,分析不同土地利用类型和不同土层土壤有机碳(SOC)、全氮(TN)、全磷(TP)含量及其化学计量特征。结果表明: 1)科尔沁沙地0～10 cm SOC(3.23 g·kg^-1)、TN(0.37 g·kg^-1)、TP(0.15 g·kg^-1)含量及化学计量比(C:N、C:P、N:P分别为9.07、25.56、2.97)远低于中国陆地土壤。2)土地利用变化显著改变了SOC、TN、TP含量及其化学计量特征,0～100 cm SOC、TN、TP含量均表现为灌溉农田>沙质草地>旱作农田>固定沙丘>流动沙丘;沙质草地、灌溉农田、旱作农田C:N显著高于固定沙丘和流动沙丘,沙质草地、固定沙丘、灌溉农田、旱作农田C:P显著高于流动沙丘,5种土地利用类型N:P无显著差异。3)随土层深度增加,沙质草地、固定沙丘、灌溉农田、旱作农田SOC和TN含量显著降低,流动沙丘SOC、TN含量和C:P在各土层间无显著差异;总体上,各土地利用类型TP含量和C:N受土层影响较小;沙质草地、固定沙丘、灌溉农田、旱作农田C:P和沙质草地N:P随土层深度增加而降低。4)SOC、TN、TP、C:N与中砂粒、细砂粒、土壤容重呈显著负相关,与黏粉粒和极细砂粒呈显著正相关。沙漠化导致科尔沁沙地SOC和养分流失,加剧土壤N缺乏,水肥投入有助于耕地维持相对较高的土壤养分水平。     

马衔山不同海拔土壤碳、氮、磷含量及生态化学计量特征

研究半干旱地区土壤碳、氮、磷化学计量特征,了解其空间变化规律,有助于揭示半干旱地区C、N、P循环对全球气候变化的响应。本研究以半干旱区的马衔山为对象,选择5个海拔的7个样地,采集0~15、15~30 cm层的土壤,测定其有机碳(SOC)、全氮(TN)、全磷(TP)、pH、含水率等理化性质,分析其SOC、TN、TP化学计量与土壤理化因子之间的关系。结果表明:(1)0~15 cm土壤SOC、TN、TP含量高于15~30 cm土壤。表层土壤SOC、TN含量随海拔升高呈增加趋势,TP含量随海拔升高变化较小。(2)C∶N随海拔增加呈先增加后降低趋势,C∶P、N∶P随海拔升高均呈增加趋势。(3)在0~15 cm土壤中,pH与SOC、TN含量及C∶P呈显著负相关,在15~30 cm土层中,pH与SOC、TN、TP含量及化学计量特征关系不显著;土壤含水率与0~15、15~30 cm层土壤中SOC、TN含量均呈极显著正相关。本研究显示,在半干旱区的马衔山地区,土壤含水率随海拔增加而增加,而SOC、TN含量及C∶P、N∶P也呈增加趋势,土壤养分含量及化学计量均受土壤含水率影响。     

马衔山不同海拔土壤碳、氮、磷含量及生态化学计量特征

研究半干旱地区土壤碳、氮、磷化学计量特征,了解其空间变化规律,有助于揭示半干旱地区C、N、P循环对全球气候变化的响应。本研究以半干旱区的马衔山为对象,选择5个海拔的7个样地,采集0～15、15～30 cm层的土壤,测定其有机碳(SOC)、全氮(TN)、全磷(TP)、pH、含水率等理化性质,分析其SOC、TN、TP化学计量与土壤理化因子之间的关系。结果表明:(1) 0～15 cm土壤SOC、TN、TP含量高于15～30 cm土壤。表层土壤SOC、TN含量随海拔升高呈增加趋势,TP含量随海拔升高变化较小。(2) C∶N随海拔增加呈先增加后降低趋势,C∶P、N∶P随海拔升高均呈增加趋势。(3)在0～15 cm土壤中,pH与SOC、TN含量及C∶P呈显著负相关,在15～30 cm土层中,pH与SOC、TN、TP含量及化学计量特征关系不显著;土壤含水率与0～15、15～30 cm层土壤中SOC、TN含量均呈极显著正相关。本研究显示,在半干旱区的马衔山地区,土壤含水率随海拔增加而增加,而SOC、TN含量及C∶P、N∶P也呈增加趋势,土壤养分含量及化学计量均受土壤含水率影响。     

喀斯特峰丛坡地不同土地利用方式下土壤N、P空间变异特征

基于网格点(5 mx5 m)采样法采集土壤样品,利用经典统计学和地统计学方法,研究了喀斯特峰丛坡地不同土地利用方式(火烧迹地、刈割地、草地、封育地)下表层(0～20cm)土壤氮、磷的空间变异特性.结果表明:研究区4种不同土地利用方式土壤全氮(TN)、全磷(TP)、速效氮(AN)、速效磷(AP)均为中等程度变异,含量分别为5.40 ～6.26 g·kg-1、1.24 ～1.44 g·kg-1、365.87～507.32 mg·kg-1、3.91 ～8.04 mg·kg-1,封育地、火烧迹地土壤质量优于草地和刈割地;4种土地利用方式中火烧AN、火烧AP、刈割AN、封育TN的半方差函数最佳拟合模型为球状模型,火烧TN、刈割TN、刈割AP最佳拟合模型为指数模型,其他指标的最佳拟合模型均为高斯模型.刈割TP、火烧TP、草地TP、刈割TN、火烧AP、草地AP、封育TP表现为强烈的空间自相关性,其他土壤养分表现为中等的空间自相关.4种土地利用类型土壤TN与AN、TP与AP具有相似的空间分布格局.火烧、刈割处理TN和AN呈凹形分布,TP和AP呈单峰分布特征,中下坡含量最高,往两端含量逐渐降低;草地TN、AN、TP、AP 4种养分含量均随着坡位的升高而降低;封育样地中4种养分呈类似凹形分布,中间含量低,两端略微升高.土地利用方式的变化改变了喀斯特峰丛坡地土壤养分质量,造成了土壤养分空间格局的变化,因此,在地形破碎、土层浅薄的喀斯特地区进行生态恢复与重建时,应采取合理土地利用方式,进行保护和适度开发,提高喀斯特退化生态系统土壤质量.     

两种荒漠豆科植物化学计量特征与生境土壤因子的关系

豆科植物是荒漠等干旱生态系统的重要先锋物种,也是生态系统中有效氮的主要来源。为了明确荒漠豆科植物与生境土壤因子之间的关系,该研究以古尔班通古特沙漠广泛分布的荒漠豆科植物弯花黄芪(Astragalus flexus)、镰荚黄芪(Astragalus arpilobus)为对象,测定不同土壤深度(0~5、5~10、10~15 cm)的理化性质,比较分析2种荒漠豆科植物化学计量特征与土壤因子的关系。结果表明:(1)弯花黄芪碳(C)、氮(N)、磷(P)含量分别为373.35、25.66、1.03 mg·g^-1,高于镰荚黄芪的331.53、19.59、0.66 mg·g^-1,且二者的N、P含量均差异显著(P<0.05);弯花黄芪的C∶P、N∶P分别为374.38、25.75,均极显著高于镰荚黄芪的166.09、10.12(P<0.01),而弯花黄芪的C∶N(14.62)低于镰荚黄芪(16.99),两种植物的C和C∶N均无显著差异。(2)豆科植物生境土壤在0~5 cm土层的有机碳(SOC)、全氮(TN)、全磷(TP)含量最高,且随土层的加深逐渐减少;土壤化学计量比SOC∶TN、SOC∶TP均随土层加深逐渐增大,而TN∶TP值随土层加深逐渐减少;较低的N含量及TN∶TP 显示该区域土壤属于N素缺乏类型。(3)2种荒漠豆科植物与各层次土壤化学计量特征的相关性无一致规律。其中,弯花黄芪立地0~10 cm土层的TN与N∶P间呈负相关关系,TP与P间呈极显著负相关关系,而TP与C∶N间呈正相关关系,SOC∶TN与N∶P间呈极显著正相关关系;在10~15 cm土层中,SOC∶TN与N∶P间呈正相关关系。镰荚黄芪中仅P含量与其立地0~5 cm土层的SOC∶TP具有极显著正相关关系,而大部分化学计量特征间未显示出相关性。(4)弯花黄芪的植物化学计量指标P含量与5~10 cm土层的电导率(EC)间呈极显著正相关关系,N含量与10~15 cm土层的速效钾(AK)间呈正相关关系;而镰荚黄芪N、AP与N∶P与0~5 cm土层的速效磷(AP)间均呈极显著负相关关系,与其他土层未出现相关关系。研究认为,古尔班通古特沙漠土壤N含量以及TN∶TP较低,土壤N元素贫瘠,且该区豆科植物立地土壤养分含量总体偏低;该区弯花黄芪生长的主要限制元素为P,而镰荚黄芪生长的主要限制元素为N和P;植物化学计量特征并非全部由土壤养分特征直接决定,其明显的种间差异显示植物自身遗传特性在土壤 植物计量特征耦合关系的重要性。     

草地退化对三江源国家公园高寒草甸表层土壤有机碳、全氮、全磷的空间驱动

草地退化显著削弱了三江源高寒草甸的土壤肥力及生态承载功能,但空间尺度上的驱动强度和环境调控尚不清晰。在2020年7—8月,基于三江源国家公园高寒草甸典型分布区原生植被和退化植被的60个配对采样,研究表层(0—30 cm)土壤有机碳(SOC)、全氮(TN)和全磷(TP)含量对草地退化的空间响应特征。三江源国家公园高寒草甸原生植被SOC和TN含量分别为(2.45±2.05)%(平均值±标准差,下同)和(0.25±0.20)%,配对样本t-检验的结果表明草地退化导致SOC和TN分别极显著(P<0.001)下降了44.0%和35.6%。TP对草地退化无显著响应(P=0.22)。原生植被的土壤C∶N∶P平均为59.6∶6.2∶1.0,草地退化导致化学计量值平均下降28.3%。一般线性模型的结果表明草地退化对SOC和TN及土壤生态化学计量特征的空间降低强度主要取决于纬度和海拔(P<0.01),与经度和土壤深度关系较弱(P>0.30),即低纬度高海拔的高寒草甸响应相对强烈。草地退化导致三江源国家公园高寒草甸土壤碳氮损失严重,降低了土壤生态化学计量。研究结果可为三江源退化高寒草甸土壤...     

模拟降雨对黄土高原典型草原土壤化学计量及微生物多样性的影响

以宁夏固原云雾山自然保护区封育19年天然草地为研究对象,利用遮雨棚和滴灌技术对研究区的降水量进行人为调控,系统分析了草原土壤生态化学计量及其微生物多样性在50%、100%和150%不同降雨处理下的响应。结果表明:经过一年的水分控制处理(1)不同降雨梯度对土壤有机碳(SOC)、全氮(TN)、全磷(TP)、碳氮比(C/N)、碳磷比(C/P)、氮磷比(N/P)无显著性影响,但100%降水处理下SOC、TN、TP、N/P均高于50%和150%降水处理。(2)在3种不同降水梯度处理下,各处理不同土层深度SOC、TN、TP、C/N、C/P、N/P有显著性差异(P0.05),且随土层深度加深,土壤化学计量及其比值逐渐降低。(3)降雨对土壤微生物多样性影响不大,但増雨和减雨均能增加真菌多样性,引起细菌菌群结构发生相应的变化,且真菌优势种相对丰度随降雨增加呈下降趋势。(4)土壤SOC、TP、C/N与微生物多样性无显著相关,C/P、N/P与细菌多样性呈显著负相关关系(P0.05),与真菌多样性呈极显著正相关关系(P0.01)。短期(一年)降雨变化对土壤养分及微生物多样性影响较弱,但微生物多样性与土壤养分二者之间关系密切,研究结果为探讨长期降雨处理对草地生态系统影响提供参考。     

内蒙古包头黄河湿地土壤碳氮磷含量及其生态化学计量学特征

为探究内蒙古包头黄河湿地土壤空间分布特征、生态化学计量学特征及其指示意义,以黄河包头段沿线从东到西的3种典型类型共6块湿地为研究对象,对其不同土层土壤碳(C)、氮(N)和磷(P)化学计量特征及环境因素进行研究分析。结果表明:1)SOC、TN和TP平均值分别为11.20、0.42、0.98 g/kg,SOC、TN含量随土层深度增加而垂直波动减小,TP含量垂直方向上差异不显著。2)土壤C/N、C/P、N/P平均值分别为25.39、9.26、0.37,与中国淋溶土、干旱土和沼泽湿地土壤相比,包头市黄河湿地土壤TN含量、C/P和N/P较低,TP含量较高。3)相关性分析结果显示,土壤TN与SOC、TP、N/P和C/P具极显著正相关(P0.01),与C/N相关性不显著;土壤TP与SOC、TN、C/N和C/P呈极显著正相关(P0.01),与N/P相关性不显著,TP含量高但有效性较低,TN含量及其有效性可能是限制包头黄河湿地土壤碳、氮、磷等元素循环及其生态化学计量特征的关键因子。研究结果将为包头黄河湿地的植被重建、生态修复和科学管理提供理论依据。     

Distribution of N,P, K,Ca, Mg,S, Zn,Fe, Mn and Cu in groundnut

Summary Concentration of N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S in summer groundnut crop was higher than in kharif while Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu contents were higher in summer crop. Kernel's N, P and Zn; Leaflet's Ca and Mn; Stem's K and Fe; Root's S and Cu and Petiole's Mg contents were highest. Shell's N, P, K, Mg, S, Zn and Cu; Kernel's Ca, Fe and Mn contents were the least. N, P, K, S, Zn and Cu concentrations decreased linearly as the crop grew. Ca, Mg, Fe and Mn concentrations did not display any distinct pattern. Ca concentration was positively correlated with pod yield in both the seasons.     

Uniform hypothesis of cell behavior--movement, contact inhibition of movement, adhesion, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, division, contact inhibition of division, fusion.

The cell has been represented as a charged liquid drop. Contrary to the DLVO-theory, the effect of the surface potential upon the value of the interfacial tension of the cell membrane has also been taken into consideration. The cell membrane has visco-elastic properties and its constituents may move against each other. Cell movement is caused by the appearance of a small number of the electrically charged constituents of the cell membrane on the leading edge of the cell. This produces a local decrease in the surface tension and the cell membrane expansion. At the moment of contact between two cells proton transfers occur between the strongly negatively charged microvilli of one cell and the body of the other, analogous to a condenser breakdown. This, through the effect on the surface tension, causes contact inhibition of movement. The distribution of the proton dissociable groups modifies the interaction between the cells (differentiation) and between the cell and the substratum (adhesion). Adsorption of the charged compounds at the surface of the cell membrane, decreasing the surface potential and increasing the surface tension, causes the phenomena of chemotaxis, phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Cell division, considered in the terms of the surface energy, requires an adequate supply of considerable quantities of energy inversely proportional to the surface potential value. In case of a reduction of the distance between the cells, their surface potential and the energetic barrier of the cell division processes increases, and causes contact inhibition of cell division. Due to their high charge, division of neoplastic cells is inhibited much later than division of normal cells, or is completely ininhibited due to geometric conditions. Fusion of the cell membrane in the intra-cellular and intercellular processes is a reverse process in relation to the cell division.     

The effect of malathion,diazinon, and various concentrations of zinc,copper, nickel,lead, iron,and mercury on fish

Acute and chronic toxicity tests for malathion, diazinon, copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), and iron (Fe) were conducted. Mortalities ofBarilius vagra andCyprinus carpio (common carp) were variable but LC50-96 hr were similar for pesticides. AdultB. vagra seem to be more sensitive to malathion than juvenile carp. Both juvenile carp and adultB. vagra were extremely sensitive to diazinon. Long-term exposure to pesticides modified morphology and behavior. The LC50-96 values for Cu, Hg, and Pb were 0.3, 0.16, and 0.44, respectively, for smaller fish and 1.0, 0.77, and 1.33, respectively, for larger fish. Replicate LC50 values for Zn, Ni, and Fe were somewhat variable, and for these metals, the size of the fish seemed to affect response because LC50 values increased as fish size increased. Cooper, Pb, Zn, and Fe residues following exposure to sublethal concentrations of these metals for 15 d were significantly greater in whole juvenile common carp than in controls.     

The Effect of Age and Gender on Al, B, Ba, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, P, S, Sr, V, and Zn Contents in Rib Bone of Healthy Humans

The effect of age and gender on major, minor, and trace element contents in the intact rib bone of 80 relatively healthy 15–55-year-old women and men was investigated. Contents or upper limit of contents of 16 chemical elements in the rib bone were determined by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). Mean values (M?±?SΕΜ) for the mass fraction of Ba, Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Na, P, S, Sr, and Zn (milligram per kilogram of dry bone) were as follows: 2.54?±?0.16, 171,400?±?4,050, 1.35?±?0.22, 140?±?11, 1,874?±?71, 0.049?±?0.011, 2,139?±?38, 5,378?±?88, 75,140?±?1,660, 1,881?±?51, 291?±?20, and 92.8?±?1.5, respectively. The upper limits of contents of Al, B, Mn, and V were <7.20, <0.65, <0.36, and <0.03, respectively. Statistically significant tendency for the Ca, Mg, and P content to decrease with age was found in the human rib bone, regardless of gender. The mass fraction of Fe in the male rib bone increases with age. It was shown that higher Ca, Mg, Na, P, and Sr mass fractions as well as lower Fe content were typical of female ribs as compared to those in male ribs.     

Further studies of the sieve-element plastids of theCaryophyllales includingBarbeuia,Corrigiola, Lyallia,Microtea, Sarcobatus,andTelephium

The sieve-element plastids of 69 species of theCaryophyllales were investigated by transmission electron microscopy. All contained the specific subtype-P3 plastids characterized by a peripheral ring of protein filaments. The presence or absence of an additional central protein crystal and their shape being either polygonal or globular as well as the average sizes of the sieve-element plastids are useful features in the characterization of some families.—Barbeuia contains sieve-element plastids that confirm its placement within thePhytolaccaceae. Lyallia differs fromHectorella by including small starch grains in their sieve-element plastids, which otherwise by their globular crystals negate a closer connection to theCaryophyllaceae. The lack of a central protein crystal in its form-P3fs plastids placesMicrotea best within theChenopodiaceae. Sarcobatus, a so far uncontested member of theChenopodiaceae, contains form-P3cf plastids, i.e., including a central crystal not found elsewhere in this family.Telephium andCorrigiola, shifted back and forth betweenMolluginaceae andCaryophyllaceae, have form-P3cf(s) plastids with a polygonal crystal which favor their placement within theCaryophyllaceae.     

Simultaneous measurement of the trace elements Al, As, B, Be, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Rb, Se, Sr, and Zn in human serum and their reference ranges by ICP-MS

The goal of this article was to establish reference ranges of the concentration of trace elements in human serum and to compare these results with those reported by other authors. We describe the sample preparation and measurement conditions that allow the rapid, precise, and accurate determination of Al, As, B, Be, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni, Rb, Se, Sr, and Zn in human serum samples (n=110) by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Accuracy and precision were determined by analyzing three reconstituted reference serum samples by comparison with other methods and by the standard addition procedure. The advantages of the ICP-MS method include short time of analysis of the elements mentioned, low detection limit, high precision, and high accuracy. Disadventages include a high risk of contamination due to the presence of some of the elements of interest in the environment, the relatively delicate sample handling, and the high cost of the equipment.     

Translocation of radionuclides of Co, Zn, Se, Rb, Y, Tc, and Re into organs of tomato plant via roots

The translocation of the radionuclides of Co, Zn, Se, Rb, Y, Tc, and Re into red and green fruits, flesh, seeds, rind, calyxes, flower, leaves, and stems via the root of the tomato plant at two different growth stages was studied by a multitracer technique. The contents (%/g) of Co, Zn, Se, and Y in the roots were the highest among the organs, but only small amounts of them were translocated into the aerial parts after 5 d cultivation with a multitracer. In contrast, Rb, Tc, and Re showed rapid translocation into the stems and leaves from the root. In the plants cultivated for 95 d with a multitracer, Zn, Se, and Rb distributed in all of the organs, Co in the organs except for flowers, and Y, Tc, and Re in the limited organs. The translocation ratio of the elements for the edible part of the plants cultivated for 95 d decreased in the order of Rb>Zn>Co≈Se>Tc≈Y>Re. The transfer factor of the elements for tomato fruit was determined to be in the range of 10⁻⁵–10⁻². The characteristic translocation behavior of the elements gives us fundamental information on the assessment of pollutant uptake by the tomato plant.