Canopy disturbance patterns and regeneration of Quercus species in two Ohio old-growth forests

This study was conducted to determine the abundance of Quercus species, the spatial pattern of Quercus regeneration, the current canopy disturbance pattern, and their interrelationship in two old-growth deciduous forests in Ohio (Goll Woods and Sears-Carmean Woods). Acer saccharum and Fagus grandifolia had the greatest density and basal area in both forests, yet the largest trees (by basal area) present at each site were Quercus spp. Quercus spp. appeared to be decreasing in abundance in both sites. Though Quercus seedlings were common, few Quercus saplings or subcanopy trees were present. The current disturbance regimes were dominated by small canopy gaps created by death of 1–2 trees; canopy gaps 100 m² in size were rare and only 2.5–2.8% of the forest area was covered by recognizable canopy gaps. No significant differences in the density of Quercus seedlings or saplings were found between gaps and non-gap areas at either site. Though no significant barrier to seedling establishment appeared to exist, the present disturbance regimes are not well suited for the growth of Quercus into the subcanopy size class or the recruitment of Quercus into the canopy. The most frequent gapmakers in Goll Woods were Tilia americana and Acer saccharum, and those in Sears-Carmean Woods were A. saccharum and F. grandifolia. The species most frequent as gap fillers were A. saccharum (in both sites) and F. grandifolia (in Goll Woods). These results suggest that A. saccharum will continue to increase in abundance, and Quercus decrease in abundance, in these two old-growth stands.     

Legacy of Pre-Disturbance Spatial Pattern Determines Early Structural Diversity following Severe Disturbance in Montane Spruce Forests

Background

Severe canopy-removing disturbances are native to many temperate forests and radically alter stand structure, but biotic legacies (surviving elements or patterns) can lend continuity to ecosystem function after such events. Poorly understood is the degree to which the structural complexity of an old-growth forest carries over to the next stand. We asked how pre-disturbance spatial pattern acts as a legacy to influence post-disturbance stand structure, and how this legacy influences the structural diversity within the early-seral stand.

Methods

Two stem-mapped one-hectare forest plots in the Czech Republic experienced a severe bark beetle outbreak, thus providing before-and-after data on spatial patterns in live and dead trees, crown projections, down logs, and herb cover.

Results

Post-disturbance stands were dominated by an advanced regeneration layer present before the disturbance. Both major species, Norway spruce (Picea abies) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia), were strongly self-aggregated and also clustered to former canopy trees, pre-disturbance snags, stumps and logs, suggesting positive overstory to understory neighbourhood effects. Thus, although the disturbance dramatically reduced the stand’s height profile with ~100% mortality of the canopy layer, the spatial structure of post-disturbance stands still closely reflected the pre-disturbance structure. The former upper tree layer influenced advanced regeneration through microsite and light limitation. Under formerly dense canopies, regeneration density was high but relatively homogeneous in height; while in former small gaps with greater herb cover, regeneration density was lower but with greater heterogeneity in heights.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that pre-disturbance spatial patterns of forests can persist through severe canopy-removing disturbance, and determine the spatial structure of the succeeding stand. Such patterns constitute a subtle but key legacy effect, promoting structural complexity in early-seral forests as well as variable successional pathways and rates. This influence suggests a continuity in spatial ecosystem structure that may well persist through multiple forest generations.     

A fifty-year reconstruction of annual changes in the spatial distribution of Pinus banksiana stands: does pattern fit competition theory?

We used tree-ring reconstruction data to study changes in the spatial pattern of live and dead trees at an annual resolution over a 50-year period at four unmanaged, even-aged fire origin jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stands in Saskatchewan and Manitoba, Canada. Previous studies of the spatial pattern in P. banksiana have either looked at only a snapshot from a survey done at a single point in time, or repeated measurements of permanent plots taken at 10-year intervals. With annual data, we could examine detailed changes in spatial patterns and relate these to events during stand development and external disturbances. Trees were initially clustered at all sites, but at different distances at each site, most likely because of variability in seedbed distribution at stand initiation. Clustering disappeared over time at all sites, and at a similar mean tree spacing at each site. However, significant regularity only appeared sporadically at one site, indicating that competition with neighbours was not the only factor influencing changes in spatial pattern. At two of the four sites, clustering disappeared suddenly at the same time that mortality rate reached a peak, in one case also coinciding with a jack pine budworm (Choristoneura pinus pinus Freeman) defoliation event. Dead trees were also initially more clustered than the distribution of all trees, but at different distances than the clustering of live trees. This also disappeared over time so that dead trees were eventually a random sample from the distribution of all trees. After the peak of mortality had passed, factors other than competition were determining the dynamics of these forests.     

Effects of converting natural forests to coniferous plantations on fruit and seed production and mating patterns in wild cherry trees

Landscape disturbances can affect reproductive performance of animal-pollinated trees. We verified the effects of the loss and fragmentation of natural forests caused by the creation of coniferous plantations on fruit and seed production as well as mating patterns of animal-pollinated trees. We investigated 146 and 134 individual flowering trees of Prunus verecunda (Koidz.) Koehne in 2012 and 2013, respectively, at 12 sites. These sites were at least 1.2 km apart from each other in an 8 × 15-km forestry region, and the composition and configuration of natural forests varied in the study area. The mean outcrossing rate was >0.99 across the sites. Among trees within the sites, the number of fruits per inflorescence was positively correlated with the basal stem area and leaf chlorophyll density of the trees. Among the sites, the mean number of fruits per inflorescence was positively correlated with the site elevation, and the correlated paternity was positively correlated with the mean distance between trees. The sound-seed rate was positively correlated with the natural-forest area among the sites. These results suggest that environments and resources of trees influence their fruit production, that a loss of natural forests increases in embryo mortality, and that a reduction in tree density decreases pollen donor diversity in P. verecunda. Thus, a landscape disturbance may decrease seed production, whereas outbreeding is maintained, and fruit production is not likely to be dependent on the landscape disturbance in this species.     

Edge disturbance drives liana abundance increase and alteration of liana–host tree interactions in tropical forest fragments

Closed‐canopy forests are being rapidly fragmented across much of the tropical world. Determining the impacts of fragmentation on ecological processes enables better forest management and improves species‐conservation outcomes. Lianas are an integral part of tropical forests but can have detrimental and potentially complex interactions with their host trees. These effects can include reduced tree growth and fecundity, elevated tree mortality, alterations in tree‐species composition, degradation of forest succession, and a substantial decline in forest carbon storage. We examined the individual impacts of fragmentation and edge effects (0–100‐m transect from edge to forest interior) on the liana community and liana–host tree interactions in rainforests of the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland, Australia. We compared the liana and tree community, the traits of liana‐infested trees, and determinants of the rates of tree infestation within five forest fragments (23–58 ha in area) and five nearby intact‐forest sites. Fragmented forests experienced considerable disturbance‐induced degradation at their edges, resulting in a significant increase in liana abundance. This effect penetrated to significantly greater depths in forest fragments than in intact forests. The composition of the liana community in terms of climbing guilds was significantly different between fragmented and intact forests, likely because forest edges had more small‐sized trees favoring particular liana guilds which preferentially use these for climbing trellises. Sites that had higher liana abundances also exhibited higher infestation rates of trees, as did sites with the largest lianas. However, large lianas were associated with low‐disturbance forest sites. Our study shows that edge disturbance of forest fragments significantly altered the abundance and community composition of lianas and their ecological relationships with trees, with liana impacts on trees being elevated in fragments relative to intact forests. Consequently, effective control of lianas in forest fragments requires management practices which directly focus on minimizing forest edge disturbance.     

Structural heterogeneity and tree spatial patterns in an old-growth deciduous lowland forest in Cantabria, northern Spain

Old-growth deciduous forests in western Europe, for the most part, consist of small tracts that often may be atypical due to human disturbance, poor soil productivity or inaccessibility. In addition, very little information on tree age distributions, structural heterogeneity and tree spatial patterns appears to be available for west-European forests. Characterization of the structural features of tree populations in these old-growth stands can provide the basis to design conservation plans and also inform on how present forests might look in the absence of human interference. Four old-growth stands in a deciduous forest in the Cantabrian lowlands, northern Spain, were surveyed to determine forest structure and spatial patterns. Live and dead trees were identified, measured and mapped, and live trees were cored for age estimation. Structural heterogeneity was analyzed by means of the spatial autocorrelation of tree diameter, height and age, and the uni- and bivariate spatial patterns of trees were analyzed. The dominant species, Fagus sylvatica and Quercus robur, showed reverse-J shaped size distributions but discontinuous age distributions, with maximum ages of 255–270 yr. Tree ages suggested that the forest was largely modified by past changes in forest-use, especially by temporal variation in grazing intensity. Spatial autocorrelation revealed that former parkland stands were heterogeneous with respect to tree height only, while high forest stands were composed of patches of even-aged and even-sized trees. Young trees were clumped at varying distances and establishment occurred preferentially in canopy gaps, except for Ilex aquifolium that mainly occurred beneath mature Quercus trees. Surviving trees became less intensely clumped in the dominant species, and more strongly clumped in understorey ones, which may have been due to the effects of intraspecific competition and of canopy trees on tree survival, respectively. The spatial associations between species varied within the forest, probably as a consequence of specific establishment preferences and competitive interactions.     

Gap Dynamics and Structure of Two Old-Growth Beech Forest Remnants in Slovenia

Context

Due to a long history of intensive forest exploitation, few European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) old-growth forests have been preserved in Europe.

Material and Methods

We studied two beech forest reserves in southern Slovenia. We examined the structural characteristics of the two forest reserves based on data from sample plots and complete inventory obtained from four previous forest management plans. To gain a better understanding of disturbance dynamics, we used aerial imagery to study the characteristics of canopy gaps over an 11-year period in the Kopa forest reserve and a 20-year period in the Gorjanci forest reserve.

Results

The results suggest that these forests are structurally heterogeneous over small spatial scales. Gap size analysis showed that gaps smaller than 500 m² are the dominant driving force of stand development. The percentage of forest area in canopy gaps ranged from 3.2 to 4.5% in the Kopa forest reserve and from 9.1 to 10.6% in the Gorjanci forest reserve. These forests exhibit relatively high annual rates of coverage by newly established (0.15 and 0.25%) and closed (0.08 and 0.16%) canopy gaps. New gap formation is dependant on senescent trees located throughout the reserve.

Conclusion

We conclude that these stands are not even-sized, but rather unevenly structured. This is due to the fact that the disturbance regime is characterized by low intensity, small-scale disturbances.     

Factors at multiple scales affecting distribution patterns and their implications for animal conservation – Leadbeater's Possum as a case study

Detailed field and modelling studies have been completed at different spatial scales for the endangered arboreal marsupial, Leadbeater's Possum (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri); a species virtually confined to the ash-type eucalypt forests in the Central Highlands of Victoria, south-eastern Australia. These forests are also subject to considerable pressure to produce timber and paper products. The studies of Leadbeater's Possum highlighted the factors influencing the distribution and abundance of the species ranging from broad distribution patterns, the occupancy of habitat patches at the landscape scale, and the use of individual den sites and the quality of trees that provide food within particular stands. These scales correspond to the entire known range of the species, sub-populations within a metapopulation occupying an ensemble of patches at the landscape scale, and colonies occupying den trees in individual stands. Information on the factors influencing the distribution of Leadbeater's Possum at one spatial scale were found to be important for informing processes at another. For example, an understanding of the species habitat requirements informed the spatial distribution of habitat patches at the landscape level which, in turn, gave insights into predicted metapopulation dynamics. Each spatial scale of ecological investigation of Leadbeater's Possum had a corresponding scale of forest management, and they included: virtually the entire ash-type eucalypt resource in the region, the location of large reserves, the design of corridors and retained patches within production forest landscapes, silvicultural practices employed in individual stands, and the retention of individual trees and clusters of trees on logged sites. This range of forest management scales, and the corresponding-scaled array of ecological studies, have particular implications for the conservation of Leadbeater's Possum. The results of investigations to date have revealed that conservation efforts must focus on ash-type eucalypt forests in the Central Highlands of Victoria because populations of Leadbeater's Possum are virtually confined to these areas. Within the broadscale limits of the distribution of the species, the long-term conservation of Leadbeater's Possum will not only be dependent on large reserves, but also intermediate-scale reserves and corridors within wood production areas, as well changed silvicultural practices to better provide suitable habitat on logged sites. While each strategy will make a contribution to the persistence of Leadbeater's Possum, it also has important limitations; an outcome which highlights the need for a multi-scale approach to attempts to conserve the species. Notably, the overaching implications for the design of an array of different conservation strategies for Leadbeater's Possum could not have been derived from any single study at a particular spatial scale. Thus, the case study on Leadbeater's Possum suggests that consideration of factors at a range of scales should be an integral part of management and conservation planning, not only for this species, but for wildlife per se.     

Impact of sudden oak death on tree mortality in the Big Sur ecoregion of California

The Big Sur ecoregion in coastal California is a botanically and ecologically diverse area that has recently experienced substantial mortality of oak (Quercus spp.) and tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) trees due to the emerging forest disease sudden oak death, caused by the invasive pathogen Phytophthora ramorum. In response to the urgent need to examine environmental impacts and create management response strategies, we quantified the impact of P. ramorum invasion on tree mortality across the Big Sur ecoregion using high-resolution aircraft imagery and field data. Using the imagery, we mapped all detectable oak and tanoak trees possibly killed by P. ramorum infection within redwood-tanoak forests and mixed oak woodlands. To validate and improve our remote assessment, we quantified the number, size, and infection status of host trees in 77 field plots (0.25 ha). The field data showed that our remote assessment underestimated mortality due to the occurrence of dead trees in the forest understory. For each forest type, we developed regression models that adjusted our remote assessments of tree mortality in relation to field observations of mortality and local habitat variables. The models significantly improved remote assessment of oak mortality, but relationships were stronger for mixed oak woodlands (r ² = 0.77) than redwood-tanoak forests (r ² = 0.66). Using the field data, we also modeled the amount of dead tree basal area (m²) in relation to the density of mapped dead trees in mixed oak woodlands (r ² = 0.73) and redwood-tanoak forests (r ² = 0.54). Application of the regression models in a GIS estimated 235,678 standing dead trees in 2005 and 12,650 m² of tree basal area removed from the ecoregion, with 63% of mortality occurring in redwood-tanoak forests and 37% in mixed oak woodlands. Integration of the remote assessment with population estimates of host abundance, obtained from an independent network of 175 field plots (0.05 ha each), indicated similar prevalence of mortality in redwood-tanoak forests (20.0%) and mixed oak woodlands (20.5%) at this time. This is the first study to quantify a realistic number of dead trees impacted by P. ramorum over a defined ecological region. Ecosystem impacts of such widespread mortality will likely be significant.

Controlled experiments of habitat fragmentation: a simple computer simulation and a test using small mammals

Habitat fragmentation involves a reduction in the effective area available to a population and the imposition of hard patch edges. Studies seeking to measure effects of habitat fragmentation have compared populations in fragments of different size to estimate and area effect but few have examined the effect of converting open populations to closed ones (an effect of edges). To do so requires a shift in spatial scope-from comparison of individual fragments to that of fragmented versus unfragmented landscapes. Here we note that large-scale, controlled studies of habitat fragmentation have rarely been performed and are needed. In making our case we develop a simple computer simulation model based on how individual animals with home ranges are affected by the imposition of habitat edges, and use it to predict population-level responses to habitat fragmentation. We then compare predictions of the model with results from a field experiment on Peromyscus and Microtus. Our model treats the case where home ranges/territories fall entirely within or partially overlap with that of sample areas in continuous landscapes, but are restricted to areas within habitat fragments in impacted landscapes. Results of the simulations demonstrate that the imposition of hard edges can produce different population abundances for similar-sized areas in continuous and fragmented landscapes. This edge effect is disproportionately greater in small than large fragments and for species with larger than smaller home ranges. These predictions were generally supported by our field experiment. We argue that large-scale studies of habitat fragmentation are sorely needed, and that control-experiment contrasts of fragmented and unfragmented microlandscapes provide a logical starting point.     

Influence of habitat,litter type,and soil invertebrates on leaf-litter decomposition in a fragmented Amazonian landscape

Amazonian forest fragments and second-growth forests often differ substantially from undisturbed forests in their microclimate, plant-species composition, and soil fauna. To determine if these changes could affect litter decomposition, we quantified the mass loss of two contrasting leaf-litter mixtures, in the presence or absence of soil macroinvertebrates, and in three forest habitats. Leaf-litter decomposition rates in second-growth forests (>10 years old) and in fragment edges (<100 m from the edge) did not differ from that in the forest interior (>250 m from the edges of primary forests). In all three habitats, experimental exclusion of soil invertebrates resulted in slower decomposition rates. Faunal-exclosure effects were stronger for litter of the primary forest, composed mostly of leaves of old-growth trees, than for litter of second-growth forests, which was dominated by leaves of successional species. The latter had a significantly lower initial concentration of N, higher C:N and lignin:N ratios, and decomposed at a slower rate than did litter from forest interiors. Our results indicate that land-cover changes in Amazonia affect decomposition mainly through changes in plant species composition, which in turn affect litter quality. Similar effects may occur on fragment edges, particularly on very disturbed edges, where successional trees become dominant. The drier microclimatic conditions in fragment edges and second-growth forests (>10 years old) did not appear to inhibit decomposition. Finally, although soil invertebrates play a key role in leaf-litter decomposition, we found no evidence that differences in the abundance, species richness, or species composition of invertebrates between disturbed and undisturbed forests significantly altered decomposition rates.     

Slow lifelong growth predisposes Populus tremuloides trees to mortality

Widespread dieback of aspen forests, sometimes called sudden aspen decline, has been observed throughout much of western North America, with the highest mortality rates in the southwestern United States. Recent aspen mortality has been linked to drought stress and elevated temperatures characteristic of conditions expected under climate change, but the role of individual aspen tree growth patterns in contributing to recent tree mortality is less well known. We used tree-ring data to investigate the relationship between an individual aspen tree’s lifetime growth patterns and mortality. Surviving aspen trees had consistently higher average growth rates for at least 100 years than dead trees. Contrary to observations from late successional species, slow initial growth rates were not associated with a longer lifespan in aspen. Aspen trees that died had slower lifetime growth and slower growth at various stages of their lives than those that survived. Differences in average diameter growth between live and dead trees were significant (α = 0.05) across all time periods tested. Our best logistical model of aspen mortality indicates that younger aspen trees with lower recent growth rates and higher frequencies of abrupt growth declines had an increased risk of mortality. Our findings highlight the need for species-specific mortality functions in forest succession models. Size-dependent mortality functions suitable for late successional species may not be appropriate for species with different life history strategies. For some early successional species, like aspen, slow growth at various stages of the tree’s life is associated with increased mortality risk.     

喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶林个体死亡对空间格局及种间关联性的影响

树木死亡作为森林生态系统中一个重要的生态学过程,研究其如何影响物种的空间分布格局及种间关联性,可以为揭示树木死亡机制及群落动态变化规律提供重要参考。本研究根据木论25 hm²喀斯特常绿落叶阔叶林动态监测样地两次木本植物调查数据,采用点格局分析方法,分析了树木死亡前后空间格局和种间关系的变化。结果表明: 样地内个体死亡前后主要表现为聚集分布,但死亡后聚集分布的物种比例较死亡前略微下降,小尺度上呈现随机分布的物种比例有所增加,个体的死亡呈非随机性死亡。在物种水平上,13个优势种的死树和活树之间在0～30 m各尺度上呈显著正关联,表明样地内优势物种个体之间种内和种间竞争作用不激烈;树木死亡前后种间关联性主要为正关联,且大部分物种种间关系在死亡前后并未发生变化,表明群落已发展到相对稳定的阶段;死亡后,在1～30 m尺度上表现为正关联的物种对比例有所增加,负关联和无关联的物种对在大部分尺度上有所减少,说明个体死亡发生后,各个物种之间的竞争压力在一定程度上有所缓解。     

Regeneration in subalpine coniferous forests

Death of canopy trees when gaps are formed was studied in a subalpine coniferous forest, central Japan, which was composed ofAbies, Tsuga, Picea, Betula, andSorbus. Typhoons were considered to be the most important cause of the death of canopy trees. The degree of disturbance in each of 16 plots (20 m×20 m) was represented by the percentage of the total basal area of dead trees to that of living and dead canopy trees (disturbance magnitude; MAG). The mortality of canopy trees increased as their dbh increase in the plots of lower MAG than 90%. The mortality varied among genera, andTsuga was characterized as having lower mortality than that of the other conifers. 418 dead trees were observed. The standing dead trees made up 10.7% of the trees, the stem broken trees 46.7%, and the uprooted trees 42.2%. The stem breaking was most frequent inAbies, and the uprooting was most frequent inTsuga, Picea, andBetula. Undeveloped forests, which have the L-shaped dbh distribution, were destroyed only in high degree (70%<MAG), while developed forests were destroyed in various degrees (30%<MAG<100%). The percentage of uprooted trees in basal area decreased with the development of the forest, from 60% to 10%.     

Effects of position, understorey vegetation and coarse woody debris on tree regeneration in two environmentally contrasting forests of north-western Patagonia: a manipulative approach

Aim To investigate the differential effects of position within gaps, coarse woody debris and understorey cover on tree seedling survival in canopy gaps in two old‐growth Nothofagus pumilio (Poepp. & Endl.) Krasser forests and the response of this species to gaps in two forests located at opposite extremes of a steep rainfall gradient. Location Nahuel Huapi National Park, at 41° S in north‐western Patagonia, Argentina. Methods In both study sites, seedlings were transplanted to experimental plots in gaps in three different positions, with two types of substrate (coarse woody debris or forest floor), and with and without removal of understorey vegetation. Survival of seedlings was monitored during two growing seasons. Soil moisture and direct solar radiation were measured once in mid‐summer. Seedling aerial biomass was estimated at the end of the experiment. Results Mid‐summer soil water potential was lowest in the centre of gaps, in plots where the understorey had been removed, and highest at the northern edges of gaps. Direct incoming radiation was highest in gap centres and southern edges, and lowest at northern edges. Seedling mortality was highest in gap centres, in both sites. Coarse woody debris had a positive effect on seedling survival during summer in the mesic forest and during winter in the xeric forest. The removal of understorey cover had negative effects in gap centres during summer. Seedling final aerial biomass was positively affected by understorey removal and by soil substrate in both sites. In the dry forest gaps, seedling growth was highest in northern edges, whereas it was highest in gap centres in the mesic forest. Overall growth was positively related to survival in the xeric forest, and negatively related in the mesic forest. Main conclusions Survival and growth were facilitated by the shade of gap‐surrounding trees only in the xeric forest. Understorey vegetation of both forests facilitated seedling survival in exposed microsites but competed with seedling growth. Nurse logs were an important substrate for seedling establishment in both forests; however, causes of this pattern differed between forests. Water availability positively controls seedling survival and growth in the xeric forest while in the mesic forest, survival and growth are differentially controlled by water and light availability, respectively. These two contrasting old‐growth forests, separated by a relatively short distance along a steep rainfall gradient, had different yet unexpected microenvironmental controls on N. pumilio seedling survival and growth. These results underscore the importance of defining microscale limiting factors of tree recruitment in the context of large‐scale spatial variation in resources.     

Viability of ecological processes in small Afromontane forest patches in South Africa

Abstract The conservation of biodiversity is dependent on protecting ecosystem‐level processes. We investigated the effects of fragment size and habitat edge on the relative functioning of three ecological processes – decomposition, predation and regeneration of trees – in small Afromontane forests in KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa. Ten sampling stations were placed in each of four forest categories: the interior of three large indigenous forest fragments (100 m from the edge), the edges of these large fragments, 10 small indigenous fragments (<1 ha) and 10 small exotic woodlands (<0.5 ha). Fragment size and edge effects did not affect the abundance of the amphipod Talitriator africana, a litter decomposer, and overall dung beetle abundance and species richness significantly. Bird egg predation was marginally greater at large patch edges compared with the other forest categories, while seed predation did not differ among forest categories. Tree seedling assemblage composition did not differ significantly among large patch interiors and edges, and small indigenous fragments. Sapling and canopy assemblage composition each differed significantly among these three indigenous forest categories. Thus, while tree recruitment was not negatively affected by patch size or distance from the edge, conditions in small fragments and at edges appear to affect the composition of advanced tree regeneration. These ecological processes in Afromontane forests appear to be resilient to fragmentation effects. We speculate that this is because the organisms in these forests have evolved under fragmented conditions. Repeated extreme changes in climate and vegetation over the Pleistocene have acted as significant distribution and ecological extinction filters on these southern hemisphere forest biota, resulting in fauna and flora that are potentially resilient to contemporary fragmentation effects. We argue that because small patches and habitat edges appear to be ecologically viable they should be included in future conservation decisions.     

Structure and pattern in temperate seasonal forests

Demography, spatial pattern, and diversity of canopy and subcanopy trees, shrubs, and lianas were compared in two cool and two warm temperate North American forests, paired at 30° and 40° north latitudes. All woody stems 1 cm dbh in 16 randomly located, non-contiguous plots totalling 1 ha at each of the four sites were measured, mapped, and identified. Basal area and overall density did not differ between latitudes. Demographic and spatial analyses revealed remarkable similarity in spatial dispersion, irrespective of density or species composition. At all sites, dispersion of canopy trees was random but all understory stems were uniformly distributed relative to all canopy trees. Species diversity and vertical structure differed between the warm and cool temperate sites, especially in species composition of individual strata. Associations of understory species relative to canopy species were more random at 30° than at 40° north, where a higher degree of association between canopy and understory species' patterns, coupled with their size class distributions, suggested more lengthy regeneration cycles and an alternation of species assemblages. The forests at 30°, those subject to periodic canopy disturbance by hurricanes, had more vertical mixing of species (i.e., canopy species represented in all size classes), more tree saplings, and significantly more shrub and liana species.     

Effects of tree mortality on the spatial patterns and interspecific associations of plant species in a Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata forest in Baotianman,Henan, China

Aims Tree mortality is an important ecological process in forest ecosystems. The aims of this study were to determine how tree mortality influences the spatial patterns and interspecific associations of plant species, and what are the causes of tree mortality in a 1 hm² permanent plot in Baotianman National Nature Reserve, Nanyang City, Henan Province.
Methods We conducted field investigations in the plot and used spatial point pattern analysis to examine the spatial patterns and interspecific associations of 17 species prior to and following mortality.
Important findings (1) Most of the species in the study plot showed an aggregated distribution both pre- and post-mortality. However, the number of species showing aggregated distribution decreased and the number of species showing random distribution increased following the mortality event. (2) Most species were positively associated with Quercus aliena var. acuteserrata both pre- and post-mortality, while some had no apparent association. Following tree mortality, on fine scales, the number of species with positive associations increased, and the number of species with negative associations decreased. (3) Tree mortality was in consistency with the random death hypothesis. The interspecific associations of four species with Q. aliena var. acuteserrata completely changed following death. For most species, the spatial patterns and the interspecific association with Q. aliena var. acuteserrata either changed at minor scales or did not change. The variations in spatial patterns or interspecific associations were inconsistent among species. (4) The dead trees of Q. aliena var. acuteserrata were significantly associated with the living trees in 13 species, but the associations between dead and living trees were not in agreement with the changes in interspecific association following mortality. Only five living tree species competed with the dead trees of Q. aliena var. acuteserrata, and the competition between each of these species and Q. aliena var. acuteserrata intensified after individual death. Tree mortality is the result of a variety of factors. Although the tree mortality in the study plot was in accordance with the random death hypothesis, there were also a few individuals which were dead from competition.     

Logging leaves a fingerprint on the number,size, spatial configuration and geometry of tropical forest canopy gaps

Recent advances in remote sensing such as airborne laser scanning have revolutionized our ability to accurately map forest canopy gaps, with huge implications for tracking forest dynamics at scale. However, few studies have explored how canopy gaps vary among forests at different successional stages following disturbances, such as those caused by logging. Moreover, most studies have focused exclusively on the size distribution of gaps, ignoring other key features such as their spatial distribution and shape. Here, we test a series of hypotheses about how the number, size, spatial configuration, and geometry of gaps vary across a logging disturbance gradient in Malaysian Borneo. As predicted, we found that recently logged forests had much higher gap fraction compared to old-growth forests, a result of having both a greater total number of gaps and a higher proportion of large gaps. Regrowing forests, on the other hand, fell at the opposite end of the spectrum, being characterized by both fewer and smaller gaps compared to nearby old-growth forests. Across all successional stages gaps were found to be spatially clustered. However, logging significantly diluted the degree of spatial aggregation and led to the formation of gaps with much more complex geometries. Our results showcase how logging and subsequent regrowth substantially alter not just the number and size of gaps in a forest, but also their spatial arrangement and shape. Linking these emergent patterns to their underlying processes is key to better understanding the impacts of human disturbance on the structure and function of tropical forests.     

Gap disturbances in northern old‐growth forests of British Columbia,Canada

Abstract. We characterized the abundance, size and spatial patterning of canopy gaps, as well as gap‐forming processes and light availability in boreal, sub‐boreal, northern temperate and subalpine old‐growth forests of northwestern British Columbia. The proportion of area in canopy gaps ranged from 32% in northern temperate forests to 73% in subalpine forests. Evenly distributed developmental gaps were dominant but permanent openings created by edaphic components and by shrub communities were also common, particularly in subboreal forests. Abundant gaps, large gap sizes, high numbers of gap makers per gap and frequent gap expansion events suggest that gaps have long tenure in these forests. Snapped stems and standing dead mortality were the most common modes of mortality in all forest types resulting in little forest floor disturbance, creating few germination sites for seedling establishment. We found high mean light levels (16–27% full sun) and little difference between non‐gap and gap light environments. Our results suggest that gap dynamics in these forests differ fundamentally from those in temperate and tropical forest ecosystems.