抗Bt棉棉铃虫幼虫Bt受体氨肽酶N(APN2)基因克隆

通过对Bt棉抗性和敏感棉铃虫幼虫中肠氨肽酶N的克隆和测序 ,鉴定了氨肽酶N基因家族的 1个成员Haapn2 ,其cDNA序列具有 3209个核苷酸 ,含有 3096bp的开放阅读框 ,编码产生1032个氨基酸的蛋白质。其推定氨基酸序列具有锌结合模体HEXXHX₁₈E ,N-末端具有 1 7个氨基酸的疏水性信号序列 ,C-末端还具有 2 2个氨基酸的糖基磷酯酰肌醇 (GPI)添加信号肽。比对抗性和敏感棉铃虫cDNA的开放阅读框 ,抗性品系的开放阅读框中 ,有 5 7个点突变 ,共导致了 1 5个氨基酸的改变 ,其中 2个突变 (谷氨酰胺₁₃₇→谷氨酸、缬氨酸₁₃₇→苏氨酸 )位于Cry1A毒素结合区域 ,可能与棉铃虫对转Bt基因棉产生抗性有关。报道的氨肽酶cDNA序列已提交GenBank ,AY346383和AY2 795 35分别是Bt抗性和敏感品系的Haapn2。     

棉铃虫中肠钙粘蛋白、氨肽酶N及碱性磷酸酯酶的抗血清对Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa毒力的影响

【目的】Cry1A和Cry2A类Bt蛋白通过特异性地与昆虫中肠上的受体蛋白结合而发挥杀虫作用,现已广泛应用于转基因抗虫作物。本研究旨在进一步明确Cry2A类蛋白的作用机制和Cry1A受体蛋白在Cry2A发挥毒力中的作用。【方法】本研究首先提取了棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera的BBMV,制备了钙粘蛋白(CAD)、氨肽酶N(APN)和碱性磷酸酯酶(ALP)3种受体蛋白的抗体和抗血清;然后,利用Western blot检测BBMV上这3种受体蛋白后,利用抗体封闭技术比较了敏感棉铃虫和Cry1Ac抗性棉铃虫(BtR)中3种受体蛋白的抗血清对Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa毒力的影响。【结果】对敏感品系棉铃虫,这3种已知的Cry1Ac受体蛋白抗血清显著地降低了Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa的毒力。其中APN抗血清对Cry1Ac毒力的影响最大,棉铃虫幼虫的死亡率降低了84.44%;ALP抗血清对Cry2Aa的毒力影响最大,棉铃虫幼虫死亡率比对照降低了71.04%。Cry1Ac对Cry1Ac抗性棉铃虫(BtR)的毒力显著降低,Cry2Aa的毒性也减弱。在Cry1Ac抗性棉铃虫(BtR)中,3种受体抗血清对Cry1Ac的影响比在敏感棉铃虫中的影响小,尤其是CAD和APN抗血清对Cry1Ac毒力的抑制率显著低于在敏感棉铃虫中的抑制作用;CAD和ALP抗血清对Cry2Aa毒力的影响与在敏感棉铃虫中的影响差异不显著,但APN抗血清可以显著降低Cry2Aa对Cry1Ac抗性棉铃虫(BtR)的毒力。【结论】棉铃虫CAD,APN和ALP不仅参与了Cry1Ac的杀虫过程,也对Cry2Aa毒力有一定的影响,而且这3种蛋白可能与棉铃虫对Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa产生抗性及交互抗性相关。     

RNAi介导的棉铃虫氨肽酶N基因Haapnl和钙粘蛋白基因Ha_BtR沉默对Cry1Ac毒力的影响

氨肽酶N(aminopeptidase N,APN)和钙粘蛋白(cadherin)是存在于鳞翅目昆虫中肠刷状缘膜囊(brush border membrane vesicles,BBMV)上Bt毒素Cry1A的受体.本实验将棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera氨肽酶N1基因Haapnl和钙粘蛋白基因Ha_BtR双链RNA(dsRNA)注入棉铃虫4龄幼虫体内,以研究这两种受体基因沉默后对Cry1Ac毒力的影响.结果表明:注射dsRNA(1 μg/头)进行基因沉默后,Haapnl mRNA表达量比注射缓冲液(elution solution,ES)的对照下降了30%～49%,Ha_BtR mRNA表达量下降了30%～37%.注射Haapnl dsRNA的幼虫在40和70 μg/cm2 Cry1Ac活化毒素下的死亡率显著低于注射ES的幼虫,而在100和170 μg/cm2 Cry1Ac原毒素处理下两者死亡率无显著差异;Cry1Ac活化毒素以及原毒素对注射Ha_BtR dsRNA幼虫与注射ES幼虫的毒力均无显著差异.当同时注射Haapnl及Ha_BtR dsRNA后,干扰后的幼虫对Cry1Ac活化毒素和原毒素的敏感性均显著下降.本研究进一步证明了棉铃虫Haapnl和Ha_BtR均是Bt毒素Cry1Ac的功能受体,这两种受体蛋白共同参与Cry1Ae的毒杀作用过程.该结果也提示.Haapnl或Ha_BtR基因产生突变都可能导致棉铃虫对CrylAc产生抗性.     

RNAi介导的棉铃虫氨肽酶N基因Haapn1和钙粘蛋白基因Ha_BtR沉默对Cry1Ac毒力的影响

氨肽酶N（aminopeptidase N, APN）和钙粘蛋白（cadherin）是存在于鳞翅目昆虫中肠刷状缘膜囊（brush border membrane vesicles, BBMV）上Bt毒素Cry1A的受体。本实验将棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera氨肽酶N1基因Haapn1和钙粘蛋白基因Ha_BtR双链RNA（dsRNA）注入棉铃虫4龄幼虫体内, 以研究这两种受体基因沉默后对Cry1Ac毒力的影响。结果表明: 注射dsRNA（1 μg/头）进行基因沉默后, Haapn1 mRNA表达量比注射缓冲液（elution solution, ES）的对照下降了30%~49%, Ha_BtR mRNA表达量下降了30%~37%。注射Haapn1 dsRNA的幼虫在40和70 μg/cm² Cry1Ac活化毒素下的死亡率显著低于注射ES的幼虫, 而在 100 和 170 μg/cm² Cry1Ac原毒素处理下两者死亡率无显著差异; Cry1Ac活化毒素以及原毒素对注射Ha_BtR dsRNA幼虫与注射ES幼虫的毒力均无显著差异。当同时注射Haapn1及Ha_BtR dsRNA后, 干扰后的幼虫对Cry1Ac活化毒素和原毒素的敏感性均显著下降。本研究进一步证明了棉铃虫Haapn1和Ha_BtR均是Bt毒素Cry1Ac的功能受体, 这两种受体蛋白共同参与Cry1Ac的毒杀作用过程。该结果也提示, Haapn1或Ha_BtR基因产生突变都可能导致棉铃虫对Cry1Ac产生抗性。     

粉纹夜蛾类Cry1Ac受体氨肽酶NcDNA片段的克隆与分析

设计简并引物,采用RT-PCR方法对粉纹夜蛾Trichoplusia ni(Hubner)细胞系BTI-TN-5B1-4的氨肽酶N(aminopeptidase N,APN)基因cDNA片段进行了克隆和序列分析,通过两对引物扩增出了两种氨肽酶N基因的cDNA片段,大小分别为188 bp和564 bp,分别命名为AS188(GenBank登录号:CD809324)和AS564(GenBank登录号:CD809326).对这两个片段推导的氨基酸序列进行同源性分析,结果表明两者与已报道的鳞翅目昆虫中肠的Cry1Ac毒素受体氨肽酶N有较高的同源性.     

粉纹夜蛾类Cry1Ac受体氨肽酶N cDNA片段的克隆与分析

设计简并引物,采用RT-PCR方法对粉纹夜蛾Trichoplusia ni (Hübner)细胞系BTI-TN5B-4的氨肽酶N (aminopeptidase N, APN)基因cDNA片段进行了克隆和序列分析, 通过两对引物扩增出了两种氨肽酶N基因的cDNA片段, 大小分别为188 bp 和564 bp,分别命名为AS188（GenBank登录号: CD809324）和AS564（GenBank登录号: CD809326）。对这两个片段推导的氨基酸序列进行同源性分析, 结果表明两者与已报道的鳞翅目昆虫中肠的Cry1Ac 毒素受体氨肽酶N有较高的同源性。     

二化螟钙黏蛋白CAD1的原核表达及与Cry1Ac、Cry2Aa蛋白的结合

【目的】二化螟是水稻的重要害虫之一,钙黏蛋白(cadherin,CAD)是一类重要的Bt杀虫蛋白受体,在获得二化螟钙黏蛋白基因(Cs CAD1)的基础上,明确Cs CAD1蛋白与Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa蛋白的结合能力。【方法】利用PCR技术克隆Cs CAD1基因片段,将构建的p ET-28a-(+)-Cs CAD1重组质粒转入原核表达菌株BL21(DE3)中,IPTG诱导表达。目的蛋白经Ni柱亲和纯化后SDS-PAGE电泳检测,利用western blot和ligand blot技术分析其与Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa蛋白的结合能力。【结果】重组载体可在表达菌株BL21中表达一个约44 ku的蛋白,原核表达载体构建成功。SDS-PAGE显示该蛋白条带单一,且纯度较好。Ni柱亲和层析纯化该目的蛋白后进行Ligand blot分析,结果显示Cs CAD1重组蛋白可以与Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa蛋白结合。【结论】Cs CAD1蛋白可以与Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa蛋白结合,是潜在的Cry蛋白受体,所得结果有助于阐明Cry1Ac和Cry2Aa蛋白对二化螟的作用机制。     

棉铃虫幼虫中肠非糖基磷酯酰肌醇锚着氨肽酶N基因的克隆和测序

通过对棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner)幼虫中肠氨肽酶N的克隆和测序,鉴定了1个氨肽酶N基因APN1,其cDNA序列具有3 220个核苷酸,具有3 042 bp的开放阅读框,编码产生1 014个氨基酸的蛋白质。其推定的氨基酸序列具有氨肽酶N所共有的锌结合模体HEXXHX₁₈E和N末端20个氨基酸的疏水性信号序列,但C末端没有糖基磷酯酰肌醇（glycosylphosphatidylinositol,GPI）锚添加信号序列。该氨肽酶N的cDNA序列已提交GenBank,登录号为AY358034。     

Vip3Aa及Cry1Ac对棉铃虫幼虫多种酶活力的影响

为了明确Vip3Aa的作用机制,为其作为新毒素策略重要蛋白的应用提供理论依据,本文比较了Vip3Aa、Cry1Ac对棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera(Hübner)主要蛋白酶、解毒酶、APN活性的影响,并研究了Vip3Aa和Cry1Ac共同使用对几种酶活力的作用。室内生测结果表明,Vip3Aa对棉铃虫的杀虫效果低于Cry1Ac,但Vip3Aa对棉铃虫幼虫生长有明显的抑制作用。取食含Cry1Ac、Vip3Aa或Cry1Ac+Vip3Aa饲料的棉铃虫,总蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性很快升高;但经Cry1Ac处理12 h后这2种酶活性与对照差异不显著或低于对照,而取食含Vip3Aa饲料的棉铃虫酶活力显著高于对照的时间明显延长,而且类胰蛋白酶活性也显著高于对照;表明Cry1Ac降解速度比Vip3Aa快,可能是由于降解2种蛋白参与的酶系存在差异,同时Cry1Ac+Vip3Aa混用可以延长蛋白被酶解的时间。谷胱甘肽S-转移酶和α-乙酸萘酯酶活性在棉铃虫取食含Vip3Aa、Cry1Ac或Cry1Ac+Vip3Aa蛋白的饲料后活性升高,说明这2种酶可能参与了对Cry1Ac、Vip3Aa的解毒作用。但Cry1Ac、Vip3Aa对氨肽酶活性影响不大,可能在毒蛋白发挥毒性的过程中与氨肽酶活力变化无关。     

Cry2Ab及Cry1Ac杀虫蛋白对棉铃虫中肠蛋白酶活性的影响

为明确Cry2Ab和Cry1Ac2种Bt杀虫蛋白单用与混用对棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera（Htibner）中肠主要蛋白酶活性的影响,本文测定了取食含不同Bt蛋白人工饲料后棉铃虫中肠总蛋白酶、类胰蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性的差异。结果发现：Cry2Ab处理12h后对棉铃虫中肠总蛋白酶影响不大;对类胰蛋白酶的影响最大,除最高浓度处理外,其他浓度处理后棉铃虫类胰蛋白酶的活性明显高于对照;但对类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性的影响呈倒“V”字型,只有6．67ug／gCry2Ab处理后的棉铃虫酶活力显著高于对照,其他浓度处理与对照差异不显著或略低于对照;随着取食含Cry2Ab饲料时间的增加,棉铃虫中肠类胰蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶的活性比对照显著增加;与对照相比,处理36h后类胰蛋白酶活性最高可增加到6．43倍。Cry1Ac处理棉铃虫12h后总蛋白酶、类胰蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性都明显增加,而且与处理浓度呈正相关;但是24h后,处理后棉铃虫的总蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性明显降低,只有类胰蛋白酶活性仍高于对照,但活性增长倍数低于12h时的处理。Cru2Ab和Cry1Ac2种蛋白混用处理棉铃虫后,2种酶的酶活力基本低于Cry1Ac和Cry2Ab单用的酶活力之和;只有2种蛋白浓度均为2．22ug／g混用时,处理12h后类胰蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶的活性高于2种蛋白单用时酶活力之和,且都显著的高于对照。     

The effects of Cry2Ab and Cry1Ac insecticidal proteins on protease activity in the midgut of Helicoverpa armigera

为明确Cry2Ab和Cry1Ac 2种Bt杀虫蛋白单用与混用对棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera(Hübner)中肠主要蛋白酶活性的影响,本文测定了取食含不同Bt蛋白人工饲料后棉铃虫中肠总蛋白酶、类胰蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性的差异.结果发现:Cry2Ab处理12h后对棉铃虫中肠总蛋白酶影响不大;对类胰蛋白酶的影响最大,除最高浓度处理外,其他浓度处理后棉铃虫类胰蛋白酶的活性明显高于对照;但对类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性的影响呈倒“V”字型,只有6.67μg／g Cry2Ab处理后的棉铃虫酶活力显著高于对照,其他浓度处理与对照差异不显著或略低于对照;随着取食含Cry2Ab饲料时间的增加,棉铃虫中肠类胰蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶的活性比对照显著增加;与对照相比,处理36h后类胰蛋白酶活性最高可增加到6.43倍.Cry1Ac处理棉铃虫12h后总蛋白酶、类胰蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性都明显增加,而且与处理浓度呈正相关;但是24h后,处理后棉铃虫的总蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性明显降低,只有类胰蛋白酶活性仍高于对照,但活性增长倍数低于12h时的处理.Cry2Ab和Cry1Ac 2种蛋白混用处理棉铃虫后,2种酶的酶活力基本低于Cry1Ac和Cry2Ab单用的酶活力之和;只有2种蛋白浓度均为2.22μg/g混用时,处理12b后类胰蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶的活性高于2种蛋白单用时酶活力之和,且都显著的高于对照.     

Molecular stacking of two codon-modified genes encoding Bt insecticidal proteins,Cry1AcF and Cry2Aa for management of resistance development in Helicoverpa armigera

Journal of Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology - Concurrent expression of multiple insecticidal toxins as pyramided genes in the same host plant is one of the tangible strategies to delay the...     

Vip3Aa tolerance response of Helicoverpa armigera populations from a Cry1Ac cotton planting region

Transgenic cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., that expresses the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ac toxin, holds great promise in controlling target insect pests. Evolution of resistance by target pests is the primary threat to the continued efficacy of Bt cotton. To thwart pest resistance evolution, a transgenic cotton culitvar that produces two different Bt toxins, cry1Ac and vip3A genes, was proposed as a successor of cry1Ac cotton. This article reports on levels of Vip3Aa tolerance in Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) populations from the Cry1Ac cotton planting region in China based on bioassays of the F1 generation of isofemale lines. In total, 80 isofemale families of H. armigera from Xiajin county of Shandong Province (an intensive Bt cotton planting area) and 93 families from Anci county of Hebei Province (a multiple-crop system including corn [Zea mays L.] , soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), and Bt cotton) were screened with a discriminating concentration of both Cry1Ac- and Vip3A-containing diets in 2009. From data on the relative average development rates and percentage of larval weight inhibition of F1 full-sib families tested simultaneously on Cry1Ac and Vip3Aa, results indicate that responses to Cry1Ac and Vip3Aa were not genetically correlated in field population ofH. armigera. This indicates that the threat of cross-resistance between Cry1Ac and Vip3A is low in field populations of H. armigera. Thus, the introduction of Vip3Aa/Cry1Ac-producing lines could delay resistance evolution in H. armigera in Bt cotton planting area of China.     

Effects of Vip3Aa and Cry1Ac on enzyme activity in cotton bollworm Helicoverpa armigera larvae

为了明确Vip3Aa的作用机制,为其作为新毒素策略重要蛋白的应用提供理论依据,本文比较了Vip3Aa、Cry1Ac对棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera(Hübner)主要蛋白酶、解毒酶、APN活性的影响,并研究了Vip3Aa和Cry1Ac共同使用对几种酶活力的作用.室内生测结果表明,Vip3Aa对棉铃虫的杀虫效果低于Cry1Ac,但Vip3Aa对棉铃虫幼虫生长有明显的抑制作用.取食含Cry1Ac、Vip3Aa或Cry1Ac+Vip3Aa饲料的棉铃虫,总蛋白酶和类胰凝乳蛋白酶活性很快升高;但经Cry1Ac处理12h后这2种酶活性与对照差异不显著或低于对照,而取食含Vip3Aa饲料的棉铃虫酶活力显著高于对照的时间明显延长,而且类胰蛋白酶活性也显著高于对照;表明Cry1Ac降解速度比Vip3Aa快,可能是由于降解2种蛋白参与的酶系存在差异,同时Cry1Ac+Vip3Aa混用可以延长蛋白被酶解的时间.谷胱甘肽S-转移酶和α-乙酸萘酯酶活性在棉铃虫取食含Vip3Aa、Cry1Ac或Cry1Ac+Vip3Aa蛋白的饲料后活性升高,说明这2种酶可能参与了对Cry1Ac、Vip3Aa的解毒作用.但Cry1Ac、Vip3Aa对氨肽酶活性影响不大,可能在毒蛋白发挥毒性的过程中与氨肽酶活力变化无关.     

Disruption of Ha_BtR alters binding of Bacillus thuringiensis delta-endotoxin Cry1Ac to midgut BBMVs of Helicoverpa armigera

Disruption of the Ha_BtR (a cadherin gene) is genetically linked to resistance to Cry1Ac delta-endotoxin of Bacillus thuringiensis in the GYBT strain of Helicoverpa armigera. Brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) prepared from midguts of both the Cry1Ac-resistant GYBT strain (homozygous for a deletion knockout of Ha_BtR) and the susceptible GY strain (homozygous for the wild type of Ha_BtR) possessed saturable and specific binding ability to (125)I-Cry1Ac. The binding constant (K(d)) of the GY strain was significantly lower than that of the resistant GYBT strain, whereas their binding site concentrations (B(max)) were similar. When midgut BBMVs were reacted directly with streptavidin conjugated to horseradish peroxidase, the GY strain had very clear 120- and 85-kDa protein bands, which indicated that the 120- and 85-kDa bands are endogenous biotin-containing proteins. However, the GYBT strain almost completely lost these two biotin-containing proteins. Ligand blotting with biotinylated Cry1Ac toxin showed midgut BBMVs of the GY strain contain five protein bands of 210-, 190-, 150-, 120-, and 85-kDa, respectively, while BBMVs of the GYBT strain contain only two protein bands of 150- and 120-kDa. 120-kDa bands may consist of two proteins with coincidentally the same molecular weight (putatively, an APN and a biotin-containing protein). Our results showed that the binding pattern of Cry1Ac to midgut BBMVs of H. armigera was altered quantitatively and qualitatively by knockout of Ha_BtR. There are multiple Cry1Ac-binding proteins in the midgut of susceptible H. armigera, but only the Ha_BtR can be considered as a putative functional receptor of Cry1Ac. Possible involvement of other receptor proteins in the intoxication process in vivo could not be excluded.     

Common receptor for Bacillus thuringiensis toxins Cry1Ac, Cry1Fa, and Cry1Ja in Helicoverpa armigera, Helicoverpa zea, and Spodoptera exigua

Binding studies using (125)I-Cry1Ac and biotinylated Cry1Fa toxins indicate the occurrence of a common receptor for Cry1Ac, Cry1Fa, and Cry1Ja in Helicoverpa armigera, Helicoverpa zea, and Spodoptera exigua. Our results, along with previous binding data and the observed cases of cross-resistance, suggest that this pattern seems to be widespread among lepidopteran species.     

Expression of Cry1Aa in cassava improves its insect resistance against Helicoverpa armigera

Lepidopteran insects affect cassava production globally, especially in intercropping system. The expression of Cry toxins in transgenic crops has contributed to an efficient control of insect pests, leading to a significant reduction in chemical insecticide usage. Helicoverpa armigera is a Lepidopteran pest that feeds on a wide range of plants like cotton and cassava. In the present study, transgenic cassava plants over-expressing Cry1Aa, which we named as Bt cassava, were developed and used to evaluate its efficacy against H. armigera as a model. Insect feeding assays were carried out to test the effects of Bt cassava leaves on the development and survival of H. armigera. Significant reduction (P < 0.05) in the survival and weight were detected on larvae fed with Bt cassava leaves in comparison with those fed with wild-type cassava leaves. The higher expression of Cry1Aa in transgenic cassava caused the lethal effect in larvae, in contrast to the normal growth and development of adults and pupation observed when fed with wild-type leaves. Morphological observation on the larval midguts showed that the consumption of Bt cassava affected the gut integrity of H. armigera. The columnar cells of the midgut epithelium were dramatically damaged and showed loose or disordered structure. Their cytoplasms become highly vacuolated and contained disorganized microvilli. Our study demonstrated that the transgenic cassava expressing the Cry1Aa is effective in controlling H. armigera. Our Bt transgenic cassava plant would provide a long-term beneficial effect on all crops in intercropping system, which in-turn, will be profitable to the farmers.     

Frequency of alleles conferring resistance to the Bt toxins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab in Australian populations of Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is an important lepidopteran pest of cotton (Gossypium spp.) in Australia and the Old World. From 2002, F2 screens were used to examine the frequency of resistance alleles in Australian populations of H. armigera to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) CrylAc and Cry2Ab, the two insecticidal proteins present in the transgenic cotton Bollgard II. At that time, Ingard (expressing Cry1Ac) cotton had been grown in Australia for seven seasons, and Bollgard II was about to be commercially released. The principal objective of our study was to determine whether sustained exposure caused an elevated frequency of alleles conferring resistance to Cry1Ac in a species with a track record of evolving resistance to conventional insecticides. No major alleles conferring resistance to Cry1Ac were found. The frequency of resistance alleles for Cry1Ac was <0.0003, with a 95% credibility interval between 0 and 0.0009. In contrast, alleles conferring resistance to Cry2Ab were found at a frequency of 0.0033 (0.0017, 0.0055). The first isolation of this allele was found before the widespread deployment of Bollgard II. For both toxins the experiment-wise detection probability was 94.4%. Our results suggest that alleles conferring resistance to Cry1Ac are rare and that a relatively high baseline frequency of alleles conferring resistance to Cry2Ab existed before the introduction of Bt cotton containing this toxin.