Redefining physiological responses of moose (Alces alces) to warm environmental conditions

We tested the concept that moose (Alces alces) begin to show signs of thermal stress at ambient air temperatures as low as 14 °C. We determined the response of Alaskan female moose to environmental conditions from May through September by measuring core body temperature, heart rate, respiration rate, rate of heat loss from exhaled air, skin temperature, and fecal and salivary glucocorticoids. Seasonal and daily patterns in moose body temperature did not passively follow the same patterns as environmental variables. We used large changes in body temperature (≥1.25 °C in 24hr) to indicate days of physiological tolerance to thermal stressors. Thermal tolerance correlated with high ambient air temperatures from the prior day and with seasonal peaks in solar radiation (June), ambient air temperature and vapor pressure (July). At midday (12:00hr), moose exhibited daily minima of body temperature, heart rate and skin temperature (difference between the ear artery and pinna) that coincided with daily maxima in respiration rate and the rate of heat lost through respiration. Salivary cortisol measured in moose during the morning was positively related to the change in air temperature during the hour prior to sample collection, while fecal glucocorticoid levels increased with increasing solar radiation during the prior day. Our results suggest that free-ranging moose do not have a static threshold of ambient air temperature at which they become heat stressed during the warm season. In early summer, body temperature of moose is influenced by the interaction of ambient temperature during the prior day with the seasonal peak of solar radiation. In late summer, moose body temperature is influenced by the interaction between ambient temperature and vapor pressure. Thermal tolerance of moose depends on the intensity and duration of daily weather parameters and the ability of the animal to use physiological and behavioral responses to dissipate heat loads.     

The influence of temperature,sexual condition,and season on the metabolic rate of the lizardPsammodromus hispanicus

Summary Male and femalePsammodromus hispanicus from southern Europe were acclimated to four seasonal conditions of photoperiod and night time temperature. During the dark period, the lizards' body temperatures fell to ambient air temperature but during the light period the lizards were allowed to thermoregulate behaviourally and at such times the lizards' mean body temperature varied from 29.0°C to 32.6°C. The resting metabolic rate of these lizards was measured in 5°C steps from 5°C to 30°C or 35°C. Sexual condition had little effect on resting metabolic rate, but at low temperatures lizards acclimated to winter or spring seasonal conditions had lower resting metabolic rates than those acclimated to summer or autumn conditions. At temperatures above 20°C seasonal acclimation had no effect on resting metabolic rate. It is considered that the reduction in low temperature metabolic rate in spring and winter is induced by low night time temperatures and serves to conserve energy during those seasons when lizards must spend long periods at low temperature without being able to feed.     

Effects of environmental variables on surface temperature of breeding adult female northern elephant seals,Mirounga angustirostris,and pups

Pinnipeds spend extended periods of time on shore during breeding, and some temperate species retreat to the water if exposed to high ambient temperatures. However, female northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) with pups generally avoid the water, presumably to minimize risks to pups or male harassment. Little is known about how ambient temperature affects thermoregulation of well insulated females while on shore. We used a thermographic camera to measure surface temperature (T_s) of 100 adult female elephant seals and their pups during the breeding season at Point Reyes National Seashore, yielding 782 thermograms. Environmental variables were measured by an onsite weather station. Environmental variables, especially solar radiation and ambient temperature, were the main determinants of mean and maximum T_s of both females and pups. An average of 16% of the visible surface of both females and pups was used as thermal windows to facilitate heat loss and, for pups, this area increased with solar radiation. Thermal window area of females increased with mean T_s until approximately 26 °C and then declined. The T_s of both age classes were warmer than ambient temperature and had a large thermal gradient with the environment (female mean 11.2±0.2 °C; pup mean 14.2±0.2 °C). This large gradient suggests that circulatory adjustments to bypass blubber layers were sufficient to allow seals to dissipate heat under most environmental conditions. We observed the previously undescribed behavior of females and pups in the water and determined that solar radiation affected this behavior. This may have been possible due to the calm waters at the study site, which reduced the risk of neonates drowning. These results may predict important breeding habitat features for elephant seals as solar radiation and ambient temperatures change in response to changing climate.     

Effects of heat on the dispersal performance of Ips typographus

Under present climate conditions, Ips typographus (L.) is Europe's most critical disturbance agent for mature Norway spruce (Picea abies). With ongoing climate change, the bark beetle will most probably become more prominent as a pest. The aim of this study was to analyse the dispersal performance of I. typographus under various weather conditions, especially hot days with a maximum air temperature above 30°C. In a field study, marked bark beetles were released from breeding logs and could be retraced in traps distributed across the survey area. With daily collections of the trapped beetles, it was possible to analyse the flight activity and the average flight distance of the bark beetles during hot, moderate and cool days. The numbers of daily catches and the average flight distance during the hottest days (air temperature maximum ≥30°C) did not significantly differ from the moderate days (air temperature maximum ≥22°C and <30°C). The numbers of daily catches and the average flight distance during the cool days (air temperature maximum <22°C) were significantly lower than during hot and moderate days. The results give an insight on the dispersal capacity of I. typographus under climate change driven future conditions. Increased air temperatures do not seem to impair the flight performance of I. typographus. A small proportion of cool days during the swarming period even seems to favour dispersal of I. typographus.     

Fine‐scale climate change: modelling spatial variation in biologically meaningful rates of warming

The existence of fine‐grain climate heterogeneity has prompted suggestions that species may be able to survive future climate change in pockets of suitable microclimate, termed ‘microrefugia’. However, evidence for microrefugia is hindered by lack of understanding of how rates of warming vary across a landscape. Here, we present a model that is applied to provide fine‐grained, multidecadal estimates of temperature change based on the underlying physical processes that influence microclimate. Weather station and remotely derived environmental data were used to construct physical variables that capture the effects of terrain, sea surface temperatures, altitude and surface albedo on local temperatures, which were then calibrated statistically to derive gridded estimates of temperature. We apply the model to the Lizard Peninsula, United Kingdom, to provide accurate (mean error = 1.21 °C; RMS error = 1.63 °C) hourly estimates of temperature at a resolution of 100 m for the period 1977–2014. We show that rates of warming vary across a landscape primarily due to long‐term trends in weather conditions. Total warming varied from 0.87 to 1.16 °C, with the slowest rates of warming evident on north‐east‐facing slopes. This variation contributed to substantial spatial heterogeneity in trends in bioclimatic variables: for example, the change in the length of the frost‐free season varied from +11 to ?54 days and the increase in annual growing degree‐days from 51 to 267 °C days. Spatial variation in warming was caused primarily by a decrease in daytime cloud cover with a resulting increase in received solar radiation, and secondarily by a decrease in the strength of westerly winds, which has amplified the effects on temperature of solar radiation on west‐facing slopes. We emphasize the importance of multidecadal trends in weather conditions in determining spatial variation in rates of warming, suggesting that locations experiencing least warming may not remain consistent under future climate change.     

Die küstenvegetation ostkanadas: D. Thannheiser. Münstersche Geographische Arbeiten. No. 10. Schöningh,Paderborn, 1981, 201 pp. 166 figs., 41 tables,DM. 41.50. ISBN 3-506-73210-2

Temperatures 10 and 2 cm above water level, in leaves of Salvinia molesta Mitchell, and 2 and 10 cm below water level, were measured in the field at hourly intervals over a total of 125 days. Temperature cycles of leaves and air had mean diurnal amplitudes of 8°C in summer and 17°C in winter; cycles in water lagged behind and had amplitudes which decreased with depth. Most parts of S. molesta were warmer than the air at a nearby weather station most of the time and there was temperature stratification in the water during the warm part of each day.Standard meteorological variables were selected, using stepwise regression, to predict daily maximum and minimum temperatures of S. molesta. Thermal inertia of water in the lake seemed to elevate S. molesta temperatures in autumn and depress them in spring compared with temperatures at the weather station. Better predictors were obtained by adding to meteorological variables a function based on the annual cycle of temperatures 10 cm below water level. Hourly temperatures experienced by S. molesta were predicted using curves fitted to diurnal cycles. The reliability of predictions was tested for each season of the year with independent data for a total of 78 days. Predicted temperatures were close to observed temperatures both in absolute terms and in terms of temperature-dependent growth rates of S. molesta.     

Phenological development of natural populations of European field pansy (Viola arvensis) in a semi‐arid Mediterranean environment

The phenological stages, dry matter allocation and relative growth rate (RGR) of natural populations of European field pansy (Viola arvensis) were studied under field conditions for 3 years. The species exhibited an annual life cycle of 78–100 calendar days, depending on the growing season. The life cycle was initiated in early spring and ended by early summer, with an average accumulation of 1100 growing degree days. The initiation of emergence occurred in early spring at a range of maximum air temperatures between 15 and 20°C, coupled with a range of minimum air temperatures between 5 and 10°C. With increasing temperatures in mid‐spring, there was a rapid transition to the reproductive stage. Time to flowering was shortened considerably in the warm growing season. After flowering, the species appeared to allocate a relatively large proportion of biomass to the reproductive parts than dry matter allocation to the vegetative parts during juvenile stages. The maximum value of RGR was observed in the vegetative stage, whereas RGR values decreased sharply with plant age. Overall, the species showed a short life cycle and a reproductive strategy that directs resources to reproductive rather than vegetative output, thus increasing the likelihood of persistence in systematically disturbed environments that are characterized by limited growth time as a result of major events in the field, such as mechanical cultivation or herbicide application.     

苹果果面日最高温与主要气象因子的关系

一天中 ,苹果果实表面最高温度与气温、日照、相对湿度和风速有着密切的关系。通过生长季自动监测果实表面温度的变化 ,并与设置在监测树旁边气象记录仪数据对比 ,揭示出树冠西南部果实表面温度与气温、日照、相对湿度和风速呈高度相关。结果还表明 :日照和气温是导致果实表面高温 (>45℃ )的两个主要因子。在大多数情况下 ,这两个因子相互作用决定果实高温是否发生 ,但气温的作用更为重要。一般在晴天 ,树冠西南部果实表面高温通常出现在 1 3 :3 0～ 1 5 :5 0。果实达到临界日烧高温 (>45℃ )的综合气象条件是 (1 0 :0 0～ 1 6 :0 0平均值 ) :日照 >5 80 W/m2 ;气温 >3 1 .8℃ ;风速 <1 .0 m/s;相对湿度 <3 0 %。气温、日照、风速和相对湿度与果实表面温度都呈高度相关 ,其多元回归方程为 :果实表面温度 (℃ ) =1 9.7 0 .842×气温 (℃ ) 0 .0 0 989×日照 (W/m2 ) - 2 .0 8×风速 (m/s) - 0 .1 48×相对湿度 (% ) ,r2 =0 .6 97     

Phenology model from surface meteorology does not capture satellite-based greenup estimations

Seasonal temperature change in temperate forests is known to trigger the start of spring growth, and both interannual and spatial variations in spring onset have been tied to climatic variability. Satellite dates are increasingly being used in phenology studies, but to date that has been little effort to link remotely sensed phenology to surface climate records. In this research, we use a two‐parameter spring warming phenology model to explore the relationship between climate and satellite‐based phenology. We employ daily air temperature records between 2000 and 2005 for 171 National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration weather stations located throughout New England to construct spring warming models predicting the onset of spring, as defined by the date of half‐maximum greenness (D₅₀) in deciduous forests as detected from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer. The best spring warming model starts accumulating temperatures after March 20th and when average daily temperatures exceed 5°C. The accumulated heat sums [heating degree day (HDD)] required to reach D₅₀ range from 150 to 300 degree days over New England, with the highest requirements to the south and in coastal regions. We test the ability of the spring warming model to predict phenology against a null photoperiod model (average date of onset). The spring warming model offers little improvement on the null model when predicting D₅₀. Differences between the efficacies of the two models are expressed as the ‘climate sensitivity ratio’ (CSR), which displays coherent spatial patterns. Our results suggest that northern (beech‐maple‐birch) and central (oak‐hickory) hardwood forests respond to climate differently, particularly with disparate requirements for the minimum temperature necessary to begin spring growth (3 and 6°C, respectively). We conclude that spatial location and species composition are critical factors for predicting the phenological response to climate change: satellite observations cannot be linked directly to temperature variability if species or community compositions are unknown.     

Activity in Heodes virgaureae (Lep., Lycaenidae) in relation to air temperature,solar radiation,and time of day

Summary The degree of activity of H. virgaureae in the field is largely dependent on air temperature, solar radiation, and wind velocity. Solar radiation increases body temperature above ambient. The butterfly orientates its back towards the sun and exposes the dorsal surface of the wings. At high temperatures they close the wings thereby minimizing the surface exposed to the sun. The optimal body temperature lies around 35°C as was indicated by laboratory experiments. In cloudy and cool to fairly warm conditions the butterfly is inactive. In sunshine the butterfly basks at low radiation intensities or low air temperatures while feeding (in males also flying) predominates at full sunshine or very high air temperatures (around 30°C). Males fly 5–10 times as much as females. A change from unfavourable to favourable weather is followed by an immediate increase in activity of the butterfly, which enables the butterfly to utilize short periods of sunshine.     

Streams in an uninhabited watershed have predictably different thermal sensitivities to variable summer air temperatures

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Effects of weather on activity and sleep in brooding king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus)

Avian sleep is sensitive to thermal challenges. Brooding king penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) defending a territory are exposed to wide daily fluctuations in ambient temperature and wind conditions. We studied the daytime behavioural time budget of 89 groups of territorial adults brooding a 1- to 5-week-old chick on Crozet Island during summer 1998. Scans were performed every 10 min and each bird was categorized as either active, resting or sleeping. Three ranges of ambient temperatures (T1=5-9°C, T2=10-13°C, T3=14-19°C) and wind conditions (calm-light, moderate, strong) were distinguished. Wind conditions did not affect the behavioural time budget of king penguins during summer. Resting, which represented about half of the daytime behavioural time budget, increased by 17% when ambient temperature increased from T1 to T3, mostly at the expense of active behaviours. The percentage of time spent sleeping was low, but was reduced by 66% when ambient temperature increased over 10°C. Thus, behavioural sleep was mainly observed in a range of temperatures within which resting metabolic rate of adult king penguins is minimal, i.e. between -1 and 11°C. It is also interesting to note that the range of ambient temperatures in which sleeping was high coincides with the most common microclimatology prevailing at the colony during summer, i.e. ambient temperatures between 5 and 10°C.     

Broad thermal capacity facilitates the primarily pelagic existence of northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus)

Thermoregulatory capacity may constrain the distribution of marine mammals despite having anatomical and physiological adaptations to compensate for the thermal challenges of an aquatic lifestyle. We tested whether subadult female northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) experience increased thermoregulatory costs in water temperatures potentially encountered during their annual migration in the Bering Sea and North Pacific Ocean. Metabolic rates were measured seasonally in 6 captive female northern fur seals (2.75–3.5 yr old) in ambient air and controlled water temperatures of 2°C, 10°C, and 18°C. Rates of oxygen consumption in ambient air (1°C–18°C) were not related to environmental temperature except below 2.5°C (winter only). However, metabolism was significantly higher during the fall seasonal trials (September–October) compared to other times of year, perhaps due to the costs of molting. The fur seals appeared thermally neutral in all seasons for all water temperatures tested (2°C–18°C) except during the summer when metabolic rates were higher in the 2°C water. Comparing this broad thermal neutral zone to the average sea surface temperatures potentially encountered during annual migrations indicates wild fur seals can likely exploit a large geographic area without added thermal metabolic costs.     

Understorey vegetation moderates climate in open forests: The role of the skirt-forming grass tree Xanthorrhoea semiplana F.Muell

Microsites are created by abiotic and biotic features of the landscape and may provide essential habitats for the persistence of biota. Forest canopies and understorey plants may moderate wind and solar radiation to create microclimatic conditions that differ considerably from regional climates. Skirt-forming plants, where senescent leaves create hut-like cavities around the stem, create microsites that are sheltered from ambient conditions and extreme weather events, constituting potential refuges for wildlife. We investigate day and night temperatures and humidity for four locations (grass tree cavities, soil, 20 cm above-ground, 1 m above-ground) in a South Australian forest with relatively open canopy of stringybark eucalypts (Eucalyptus baxteri, E. obliqua) and an understorey of skirt-forming grass trees (Xanthorrhoea semiplana) at 5, 10, 20, and 40 m from the forest edge. We also measured the percentage of canopy and understorey covers. Generally, temperature and humidity differed significantly between more sheltered (grass tree cavities, soil) and open-air microsites, with the former being cooler during the day and warmer and more humid during the night. Furthermore, our results suggest that canopy cover tends to decrease, and understorey cover tends to increase, the temperature of microsites. Distance to the edge was not significantly related to temperature for any microsite, suggesting that the edge effect did not extend beyond 10 m from the edge. Overall, grass trees influenced microclimatic conditions by forming a dense understorey and providing cavities that are relatively insulated. The capacity of grass tree cavities to buffer external conditions increased linearly with ambient temperatures, by 0.46°C per degree increase in maximum and 0.25°C per degree decrease in minimum temperatures, potentially offsetting climate warming and enabling persistence of fauna within their thermal limits. These climate moderation properties will make grass trees increasingly important refuges as extreme weather events become more common under anthropogenic climate change.     

Patterns of metamorphosis in summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus

Summer flounder, Paralichthys dentatus , spawn over the continental shelf off the east coast of the United States from September to January with the peak in October–November. Based on plankton collections, mid-metamorphic larvae (stages G-H; mean s.l . 13.1 mm) enter Great Bay–Little Egg Harbor estuary in southern New Jersey as early as October with continued ingress through April. In the laboratory, mortality during metamorphosis ranged from 17 to 83% among treatment groups, and was significantly greater in flounder maintained at approximately 4°C relative to those maintained at ambient temperatures (daily average temperature 10.l°C). Laboratory-reared summer flounder averaged 24.5 days (range 20 to 32 days) to complete metamorphosis (from Stage F– to Stage I) at ambient spring temperatures (daily average temperature =16.6° C). The time to completion of metamorphosis in wild-caught flounder maintained in the laboratory was clearly temperature dependent. Both cold and ambient temperature treatments resulted in delayed metamorphosis such that, at ambient winter temperatures (daily average=6.6°C), partial metamorphosis (from Stage H – to Stage I) required as much as 92.9 days (range 67 to 99 days). There was no apparent effect of starvation on either mortality or time to completion of metamorphosis at cool water temperatures (< 10° C). It appears that prevailing temperature conditions influence the duration of metamorphosis in summer flounder, and that mortality during metamorphosis may play a significant role in the population dynamics of this species.     

Behavioural thermoregulation of the Andean toad (Bufo spinulosus) at high altitudes

Summary The body temperature of free-ranging Andean toadsBufo spinulosus was measured either directly or radiotelemetrically during two 15-day periods at 3200 m elevation in the Mantaro Valley, Central Perú. All toads attempted to maintain their diurnal sum of body temperature within a narrow range. Consequently thermoregulatory behaviour differed according to cloud cover and precipitation. If the sky was clear, toads emerged from their hiding place and exposed themselves to solar radiation during 3–5 h in the morning. Core temperature increased up to 15° C above the air temperature in shade and reached maximum values of about 32° C. At air temperatures (in sun) exceeding 29° C, toads maintained body temperatures below 32° C by evaporative cooling. Following heliothermic heating during the moring toads retreated to the shade, thereby decreasing body temperature below air temperature. Under overcast sky toads remained exposed during the whole day displaying body temperatures at or slightly above ambient levels. Quantitative models to predict the core temperature of toads under the different weather conditions demonstrated that the substrate temperature was the main energy source accounting for 64.6–77.9% of total variance whereas air temperature was of minor importance (1.5–4.4%). The unexplained variance was probably due to evaporative cooling. The volume of urine stored into the urinary bladder of toads varied diurnally; during basking in the morning hours most bladders contained large volumes of urine, whereas during the afternoon the bladders were mostly empty. The bladder contents probably serve as water reserves during basking when evaporative water loss was high. Toads preferred sites that provided shady hiding places as well as sun-exposed bare soil within a radius of 5 m. However, they frequently changed their centers of activity and moved to other sites in 20–70 m distance after periods of 2–5 days. The helio-and thigmothermic behaviour of the Andean toad permits the maintenance of high core temperature during morning which probably increases the digestion rate and accelerate growth. Evaporative cooling and preference of shady sites were employed to regulate body temperature below the morning levels in response to the constraints of water balance. Periodic changes between thigmothermic behaviour and locomotory activity during the night maintains body temperature above air temperature and prolongs the period of food uptake.Dedicated to Prof. Dr. H. Schneider on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday     

Impact of climate change and prey abundance on nesting success of a top predator, the goshawk

Contemporary research has documented a large number of shifts in spring phenology and changes in distribution range although the average spring temperatures have increased by only 0.3–0.6 °C over the past 100 years. Generally, earlier breeding birds have larger clutch sizes, and the advancing spring could thus potentially increase breeding success. Shifts in spring phenology can, however, be crucial for bird reproduction, and mistiming the breeding event may even have negative consequences for population development. Our aim was to explore how weather and prey abundance relates to the breeding performance of a north European top predator, the northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis. Our nationwide dataset from Finland, spanning the period 1989–2004, shows that ambient weather has a greater impact on the timing and success of breeding than the density of grouse Tetraonidae, the main prey of goshawks. Higher early spring temperatures were associated with advancing hatching date of goshawks. Correspondingly, grouse density and temperature during laying and brooding were positively associated with brood size, while precipitation showed a negative connection. Applying our models to a future scenario of climate warming, combined with a 50 % reduction in grouse density, suggests that average breeding dates will advance only 2.5 days and average breeding success would remain the same. Notably, breeding success was not spatially equal throughout Finland, as northern and eastern populations suffered most from declining grouse densities. The observed pattern is thus the opposite to what is expected from a population situated at the northern edge of its distribution range, and thus may help to understand why populations may not increase at the northern edge of their thermal distribution due to climate change.     

Internal temperature of decomposing duck carcasses in relation to botulism

Under spring conditions (mean daily maximum 22 C, mean daily minimum 9 C), the temperature within duck carcasses paralleled air temperature for 3 days; on days 4 and 5 the internal temperature rose above 30 C for approximately 30 hr and maximum temperatures of 40-47 C occurred. This coincided with the period of maximum blowfly maggot activity in the carcasses. Carcasses screened from blowflies did not experience this period of high internal temperature. Under autumn conditions (mean daily maximum 13 C, mean daily minimum 1 C), the internal temperature of carcasses paralleled air temperature for approximately 2 wk. Following a warm day (23.5 C), maggots appeared in the carcasses and the internal temperature rose markedly higher than air temperature. Maggots moved into the soil on cold nights and reinhabited the carcasses during the day. The microclimate within maggot-infested carcasses appeared very suitable for growth and toxin production by Clostridium botulinum and this phenomenon may help explain the occurrence of botulism outbreaks during cool weather.     

Aspects of the breeding ecology and behaviors of the Bar-tailed Lark (Ammomanes cinctura) from Ha’il region in north of Saudi Arabia

The Bar-tailed Lark (Ammomanes cinctura) breeds in desert and semi-desert areas of the Saharo-Sindian region, from north-west Africa through the arid plains of the Arabian Peninsula to the Sind. Despite having a wide distribution, little information is available on the breeding ecology of this species. This study was conducted in a desert in the north of Saudi Arabia, where the daytime ambient temperature may exceed 40 °C. In contrast, the night ambient temperature may reach less than 10 °C in late spring and early summer. The objectives of this study were to collect some baseline data on some aspects of the breeding ecology of this species and to record the nest attendance behavior. The study found that Bar-tailed Larks preferred to nest under shrub trunks, which may camouflage both nests and incubating parents against predators and protect eggs, nestlings and incubating parents from hostile weather conditions. Moreover, nest attendance was high, as Bar-tailed Lark parents incubated their eggs 95.97 ± 2.62% over the entire day, and they seemed to maintain the eggs at temperatures around 23–33 °C. In addition, they incubated more at night than during the daytime. Temperatures under the shrubs at night fell below 21 °C, thus parents increased the nest attendance to warm the eggs and prevent the embryos from exposure to lethal temperatures.     

The response of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Corylus avellana</Emphasis> L. phenology to rising temperature in north-eastern Slovenia

Knowledge of plant–weather relationships can improve crop management, resulting in higher quality and more stable crop yields. The annual timing of spring phenophases in mid-latitudes is largely a response to temperature, and reflects the thermal conditions of previous months. The effect of air temperature on the variability of hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) phenophases (leafing, flowering) was investigated. Meteorological and phenological data for five cultivars were analysed over the periods 1969–1979 (P1) and 1994–2007 (P2) in Maribor, Slovenia. Phenological data series were correlated strongly to the temperature of the preceding months (R ²: 0.64–0.98) and better correlated to daily maximum and mean temperatures than to daily minimum temperatures. About 75% of phenophases displayed a tendency towards earlier appearance and a shorter flowering duration during P2, which could be explained by the significant temperature changes (+0.3°C/decade) from December to April between 1969 and 2007. An increase in air temperature of 1°C caused an acceleration in leafing by 2.5–3.9 days, with flowering showing higher sensitivity since a 1°C increase promoted male flowering by 7.0–8.8 days and female flowering by 6.3–8.9 days. The average rate of phenological change per degree of warming (days earlier per +1°C) did not differ significantly between P1 and P2. An estimation of chilling accumulation under field conditions during 1993–2009, between 1 November and 28 February, showed that all four of these months contributed approximately similar amounts of accumulated chilling units. The growing degree days (GDD) to flowering were calculated by an estimated base temperature of 2°C and 1 January as a starting date, given the most accurate calculations. In general, thermal requirements were greater in P2 than in P1, although this difference was not significant. Longer-time series data extended to other agricultural and wild plants would be helpful in tracking possible future changes in phenological responses to local climate.