林窗内光照强度的测量方法

林窗内光强存在复杂的时空变化,对植物更新和生长有着重要影响,因此,林窗光照强度的快速测量方法是生态学家十分关注的问题.目前,测量林窗光强的方法可分为3类:(1)直接测量法采用光量子探头等仪器直接测量光强,但测量林窗光强异质性时十分费时费力.(2)模型估测法通过几何计算可快速估测林窗任意位置光强,但模型估测法将林窗简化为圆柱体或椭圆柱体,并忽略了许多林窗光强的影响因素,这极大影响了它的测量精度.(3)相片法采用半球面影像等相片间接计算相片拍摄点的光强,但测量林窗光强异质性时需要在林窗内拍摄大量相片;相片法具有较高精度,可区分直射光和散射光,其中,基于半球面影像的林窗光指数(gap light index)精度最高,使用广泛;基于几何计算的林窗光指数不仅具有较高精度,且可以快速测量林窗任意位置光强,该方法适用于林窗光强水平分布格局、垂直结构以及光组成成分(直射光和散射光)特征研究.     

基于机载激光雷达的中亚热带常绿阔叶林林窗特征

机载激光雷达(LiDAR)是一种新型主动式遥感技术,能直接获取多尺度高精度的冠层三维结构信息,将其推广到森林干扰生态学领域,可为林窗研究提供应用支撑.以湖南中亚热带常绿阔叶林为研究对象,利用小光斑LiDAR数据进行林窗识别和几何特征估测.选择合适的分辨率和内插方法生成冠层高程模型,采用计算机图形学方法估测林窗面积、边界木高度和形状指数,并进行野外观测验证.结果表明: 林窗识别率为94.8%,主要影响因素是林窗面积和林窗形成木类型;估测的林窗面积和边界木高与野外观测值呈较强线性相关,R²值分别为0.962和0.878,其中估测的林窗面积平均比野外观测值高19.9%,估测的林窗边界木高度平均比野外观测值低9.9%;区域内林窗密度为12.8个·hm^-2,占森林面积13.3%;林窗面积、边界木高和形状指数的平均值分别为85.06 m²、15.33 m和1.71,区域内多为较小面积、边缘效应不太显著的林窗.
     

一种测量林窗面积的改良方法:等角椭圆扇形法

目前测量林窗面积较精确的方法为:测量从林窗中心沿8或16个罗盘方向到林窗林冠边缘的距离,再将林窗近似成等角8或16边形估测其面积(本文称这类方法为等角多边形法)。研究表明,等角8或16边形法均会低估林窗面积,本文提出一种改良方法:等角椭圆扇形法,野外测量与前者相同,计算时将相邻距离间的部分近似为椭圆扇形,以所有椭圆扇形面积之和估测林窗面积。用配对t检验对等角多边形法和等角椭圆扇形法的林窗面积进行比较,结果表明:(1)等角16边形法与等角8或4边形法存在极显著差异(P<0.001),比后两者,分别高10.96%和61.66%,这表明等角条边形法均会低估林窗面积;(2)等角椭圆扇形16分法比等角16边形法大10.16%,且二者之间存在极显著差异(P<0.001),因此,等角16边形法的测量值位于等角椭圆扇形16分法和等角8边形法之间;由(1)和(2)可推断等角椭圆扇形16分法比等角8边形法更准确;(3)等角椭圆扇形8分法与等角椭圆扇形16分法没有显著差异(P=0.715),但与等角8边形法存在显著差异(P<0.05),因此,等角椭圆扇形8分法比等角8边形法更准确。另外,本文的两个等角8边形法(基于两组不同罗盘方位的测量距离)求得的林窗面积之间存在极显著差异(P<0.01),而两个等角椭圆扇形8分法之间却没有差异(P=0.778),这表明等角椭圆扇形8分法的结果更稳定。     

林窗研究进展

本文从林窗的形成、林窗内微环境特点、林窗内树木更新、以及树轮分析与干扰重建,阐述了国内外在该领域的研究动态和取得的成果,以期推动和促进我国的林窗研究工作。根据欧美学者的研究报告,林窗的面积不仅与林冠和树径的大小成正比,而且与树木的倒伏方式有关;林窗的形成与特征主要受制造林窗树林的种类、树龄、海拔和气候带等因素的影响。林窗内微环境特点随林窗的大小、形状、纬度及所处位置的不同而变化。林窗是推动森林演替和更新的重要因素之一,林窗的形成、大小影响和控制着林内树种的组成和树木的更新。树轮分析可用于检测树木的生长释放,研究表明,在样本数量较大时,树木生长释放对重建过去的森林干扰是很有用的。     

太阳坪米心水青冈林林窗更新动力学的初步研究

研究了太阳坪米心水青冈林中林窗的特征和更新行为。在５０００ｍ＾２的研究样地中,观察到林窗１０个,林窗面积占研究面积的４０．１％,平均大小２０１ｍ＾２。探讨了林窗的形成原因,米心水青冈的更新成分与林窗的大小呈正相关性。米心水青冈的更新是在由一个或几个林冠层树种死亡后形成的林窗中进行的。     

瓦屋山中亚热带湿性常绿阔叶林的林窗形成特征

调查了瓦屋山原生和次生的中亚热带性常绿阔叶林的林窗形成特征,并对林窗形成特征,林窗制造者的死亡方式和原因进行了探讨,结果表明,次生常绿阔叶林林窗面积均＜10m^2,1hm^2仅9个,林下更新不明显,原生林林窗密度为1hm^215个,＜40m^2的林窗占56％,＞100m^2的林窗只有4个,林窗平均面积59m^2,扩展林窗平均面积105m^2,林窗和扩展林窗总面积占被调查林分的比例分别为11．1％和19．8％,林窗大小分布表现出负指数分布,即小林窗多,大林窗少,林窗形状的变异较大,大多数因边界木的多少而成不规则的多边形,大多数林窗是多个林木死亡事件的结果,因而大多数林窗有两个或两个以上的林窗制造者,各林窗年龄大多数在10a以上,最近形成的林窗极少,估计林窗表成率是0.01.a^-1,采用样地投影调查方法可提高测定精度,便于不同调查林分结果的有效比较,常绿阔叶林林窗形成原因较为复杂,小径木的死亡是竞争被压所致,而大径的较高冠层木的死亡则可能是树木生长发育以及与地形,风等自然因子相互作用的结果。     

三种乡土树种在二种林分改造模式下的生理生态比较

在丘陵荒山先锋树种马占相思林的林窗和均匀间伐50％(简称林冠层下)的2种林分改造模式下,研究了降真香、红椎和火力楠3种乡土树种生长初期的生理生态。结果表明,不管是在冬季或夏季,林窗中比林冠层下有更高的光合有效辐射(PAR)和相对湿度(RH),并且有较低的气温(Tair),林窗与林内最主要的差异是PAR的变化。生长在林窗里的植株比林冠层下的叶片小而厚,叶片单位面积干重增加,林窗里的植株叶片有较高的叶绿素含量。冬天,降真香和红椎在林窗里和林冠层下的净光合速率(Pn)日变化曲线都为单峰型,而火力楠在林窗下为双峰型,林冠层下为单峰型。3种树种在林窗里和林冠层下植株的蒸腾速率(Tr)有较相似的日进程,都为单峰型。2种林分改造模式下3种树种叶片气孔导度(GS)的日变化也较相似,与PAR的变化趋势相似,而与RH变化呈相反趋势。冬季。降真香和红椎在林窗的水分利用效率(WUE)比林冠层下稍高,而火力楠在林冠层下则比林窗高．但它们都无显著差异。夏天,3种树种在林窗和林冠层下的Pn与冬天有相似的结果。夏季红椎和降真香在林窗的Tr比林冠层下高,而火力楠在林冠层下的Tr比林窗高。Gs的变化趋势也与PAR相似,与RH变化趋势相反。夏季,降真香和火力楠的WUE在林窗比林冠层下高,但红椎却比林冠层下的低。3个树种中火力楠的WUE最高。3种树种在林窗和林冠层下的wUE都是冬季比夏季高。综合植物各项生理生态指标的分析结果可知,降真香和红椎较适宜种植在林窗里,而火力楠较能适应有一定郁闭度的林冠层下。     

哀牢山中山湿性常绿阔叶林林窗特征研究

本研究以哀牢山中山湿性常绿阔叶林为研究对象,分析了该植被群落林窗的大小结构及干扰形成等空间特征。研究表明,林窗大小取决于林窗形成方式和形成木的种类、大小。实际林窗面积远小于扩展林窗面积,前者的平均面积仅约为后者的33．2％。在数量上,实际林窗和扩展林窗的面积分布均呈以上小林窗为主的偏态分布。但在总的林窗面积比例上,大林窗的所占的面积比更大。实际林窗中,100—200m2的林窗所占面积比达66．4％。扩展林窗中,200—300m2和400—500m2大小的面积比分别为33．1％和20．6％。由于该地区冬季强劲的风力,林窗形成方式以根倒和折干,分虽占形成木总数的35％和28％。风力是哀牢山中山湿性常绿阔叶林林窗形成的主要外部驱动力。多数林窗由1—3株形成木造成的。林窗形成木的种类绝大多数为变色锥、木果柯和硬壳柯三种群范上层的优势树种。这三个树种约占林窗形成木的78％。因此,对于林窗发生这种中小尺度干扰事件,群落上层的成势树种起着决定性的影响作用。其它冠层水平的乔木(如亚冠层)的扰动也可以产生林窗,但所占比例很小。林窗形成木的径级呈明显的偏正态分布,且以21-40、41-60和61-80cm的径级最为普遍,分别占总数的31．6％、20．0％和18．3％。这种径级的偏正态分布于林窗面积偏态分布十分吻合,表明形成木的径级大小与所产生的林窗的面积大小呈正比。     

西双版纳热带雨林林窗空间分布格局及其特征数与林窗下植物多样性的相关性

林窗作为森林群落中一种重要的干扰方式, 对林下物种构成有着重要的影响。开展林窗空间格局及其特征指数与林下植物多样性关系研究对于探讨林窗对林下生物多样性的影响有重要意义, 有助于进一步了解群落动态, 在物种多样性保护方面也具有指导作用。本研究在西双版纳热带雨林地区随机选取3块大小为1 ha的热带雨林为研究样地, 采用轻小型六旋翼无人机搭载Sony ILCE-A7r可见光传感器, 分别获取各个样地的高清数字影像, 结合数字表面高程模型以及各个样地的地形数据用以确定各样区的林窗分布格局, 并进一步提取出各林窗的景观格局指数。结合地面样方基础调查数据, 对各样地各林窗下植物多样性情况进行统计, 旨在分析热带雨林林窗空间分布格局以及林窗下植物多样性对各林窗空间格局特征的响应情况。研究表明, 西双版纳州热带雨林林窗呈大而分散的空间分布, 林窗空间格局特征指数如林窗形状复杂性指数、林窗面积都与林下植物多样性呈显著正相关关系。在面积小的林窗下, 较之林窗形状复杂性因子, 林窗面积大小对林下植物多样性影响更显著; 在面积达到一定程度后, 相对于面积因子, 林窗形状复杂性指数对林下植物多样性影响更显著, 各样地林窗皆趋于向各自所处样地顶极群落发展。     

基于无人机影像探讨格氏栲天然林林窗数量分布及其影响因素

探讨格氏栲( Castanopsis kawakamii)天然林林窗数量特征及其空间分布对预测森林种群动态变化及演替具有重要意义。该文采用无人机航拍获取格氏栲天然林正射影像图并结合野外调查,通过提取林窗特征参数和计算植被覆盖率来探讨林窗空间分布及其影响因素。结果表明:(1)保护区内格氏栲天然林植被覆盖率为75.53%,部分地区出现一定面积裸露土地。(2)研究区林窗空隙率为2.40%,密度为6.50 ind.·hm^-2,平均林窗面积为36.86 m²。(3)研究区林窗数量随林窗面积增加呈负指数分布,以微、小和中型林窗为主,面积100 m²以上的林窗数量较少。(4)低海拔林冠层覆盖度好,中海拔地区林窗个体数和平均林窗面积较大,高海拔地区林窗密度和空隙率相对较大。林窗主要分布在缓坡和斜坡上,其平均面积、密度和林窗空隙率也明显较高。西和南方位林窗数量较多,北、西北和东南方向林窗密度和空隙率相对较大。格氏栲天然林植被覆盖率较高,以微、小和中型林窗为主,地形因子通过改变林窗面积、林窗密度和林窗空隙率特征驱动了格氏栲天然林林窗数量与空间分布格局。     

Estimation of canopy gap size and gap shape using a hemispherical photograph

Gap size and gap shape are two important properties of forest gaps that can influence microsite conditions in a forest stand and determine the recruitment and establishment of trees. There is no universally adopted method for measuring the gap size, although several options are available. In addition, few methods have been proposed for measuring the gap shape. This paper proposes a photographic method of estimating canopy gap size and gap shape. The proposed method is based on a vertical hemispherical photograph of the gap and is thus named the hemispherical photograph method (HPM). We tested the accuracy of the HPM measure of gap size by two ground-based methods and compared the HPM with other methods. Our results indicate that the HPM measurement of the canopy gap size is accurate, but is significantly influenced by the location of the camera. Compared with the ground-based methods, the HPM is more objective and repeatable. Compared with other photographic methods, HPM is more accurate due to the more actual assumptions, but is more labor-intensive because more field measurements are necessary. We conclude that the HPM is a powerful tool for comparative and long-term studies of forest gaps.     

Canopy structure in a temperate old-growth evergreen forest analyzed by using aerial photographs

We used aerial photographs to create a digital elevation model of the canopy surface of a 10-ha study area in a temperate old-growth evergreen forest. A topographic map of the ground surface in a 4-ha permanent plot within the study area was also drawn from ground measurements. The difference between the two elevation values (i.e., canopy surface – ground surface) at each point in a 5-m grid was considered to be the canopy height, and a canopy height profile was constructed from these data. The canopy structure in the 4-ha plot that was estimated in this way was compared with that obtained by two ground observation methods, i.e., the canopy (vegetation) height profile method and the canopy coverage census method. Large gaps were adequately detected by the aerial photograph method, but small gaps were less often detected. Gap size distribution obtained by the aerial photograph method was similar to that observed on the ground, and was a function of gap depth. This study indicates that if a detailed topographic map can be made, the canopy height profile derived from aerial photography can be effective in analyzing the canopy structure of evergreen forests, such as tropical rain forests, over large areas.     

Spatial scale and sampling resolution affect measures of gap disturbance in a lowland tropical forest: implications for understanding forest regeneration and carbon storage

Treefall gaps play an important role in tropical forest dynamics and in determining above-ground biomass (AGB). However, our understanding of gap disturbance regimes is largely based either on surveys of forest plots that are small relative to spatial variation in gap disturbance, or on satellite imagery, which cannot accurately detect small gaps. We used high-resolution light detection and ranging data from a 1500 ha forest in Panama to: (i) determine how gap disturbance parameters are influenced by study area size, and the criteria used to define gaps; and (ii) to evaluate how accurately previous ground-based canopy height sampling can determine the size and location of gaps. We found that plot-scale disturbance parameters frequently differed significantly from those measured at the landscape-level, and that canopy height thresholds used to define gaps strongly influenced the gap-size distribution, an important metric influencing AGB. Furthermore, simulated ground surveys of canopy height frequently misrepresented the true location of gaps, which may affect conclusions about how relatively small canopy gaps affect successional processes and contribute to the maintenance of diversity. Across site comparisons need to consider how gap definition, scale and spatial resolution affect characterizations of gap disturbance, and its inferred importance for carbon storage and community composition.     

Forest canopy structure analyzed by using aerial photographs

A method was developed using aerial photographs to analyze forest canopy structure. Digital elevation models of both the land and canopy surface in a mesh of 5 m intervals were made from aerial photographs taken in winter (without tree leaves) and summer (with leaves), respectively, in a 60 ha area of temperate deciduous forest. The difference between the two elevation values at each point was regarded as the canopy height, and a canopy height profile was constructed. The estimated canopy structure was compared with that obtained by ground observations in a 6 ha part of the study area. Large gaps (>100 m²) were adequately detected by the method, and the gap size distribution obtained was similar to the one observed on the ground. The method was found to be effective in analyzing the forest canopy structure of large areas, but it is not suitable for the detection of small gaps.     

长白山红松阔叶林林冠木竞争生长及林冠空隙动态研究

以长白山红松阔叶林林冠木的年龄资料为基础,分析林木冠重叠与年轮径向生长的关系;通过林冠空隙边缘人隙边缘株的干扰释压分析,揭示林冠空隙集中形成的动态规律。红松林相邻林木间理论树冠重叠率与年轮径向生长呈显著负相关,不同树种间存在不同的竞争和协同关系;红松林中除个别小空隙是经过一个集中形成期形成外,大部分空隙是经过２－３个集中形成期形成的,１９００－１９２０和１９１０－１９３０是大部分空隙的集中形成期。     

Forest canopy gap detection and characterisation by the use of highresolution Digital Elevation Models

The remote identification of forest canopy gaps from Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) built from aerial photographs is potentially a viable alternative to ground-based field surveys. In this study a DEM-based gap-finding algorithm, given suitable experimentally determined input parameters, yielded canopy gap statistics for a study area that were consistent with ground-based survey data from the same area. The method could thus be ‘trained’ to replicate ground-based results for a small test area of beech (Nothofagus) forest, with the potential for it to be applied to larger areas of forest of a similar type to gather canopy gap data with relatively little additional field work. The use of a DEM-based method also has the advantage that the results are easily analysed and mapped using commonly available GIS and cartographic software.     

利用半球图像法提取植被冠层结构特征参数

植被冠层结构深刻地影响着植物群落与环境的相互作用,对植被冠层结构的研究是深入理解植被生态系统格局、过程及其运作机制的重要基础。冠层结构特征参数的快速测量方法是植被冠层结构研究的前提,目前测量方法主要是基于实际测量的地面法,地面法一般费时费力,受人为因素影响较大,因此本文探索利用半球图像法获取植被冠层结构特征参数。通过对半球图像进行几何纠正并建立参数图层,与分类后的植被冠层图层进行运算提取植被冠层结构特征参数。将该方法应用于祁连山旺腰沟流域青海云杉冠层结构特征参数的提取,包括植被冠幅、冠层面积、冠层周长等,结果显示：半球图像法能够较好的提取植被冠层结构特征参数,该方法具有简单、客观、可重复等优点,也可作为植被冠层结构变化的监测方法。     

Forest gap formation and closure along an altitudinal gradient in Tongariro National Park,New Zealand

24 treefall gaps accumulated over a 10 year period along an altitudinal transectcovering 4.6ha on Mt. Hauhungatahi, Tongariro National Park, New Zealand were described quantitatively in terms of the area of damage (‘expanded gap’), the canopy opening (‘Tight-gap’) and the size of the root mound. Tree mortality and branch loss following cyclone Bola, 1988, were recorded. In each gap saplings were ranked by species according to their vigour. Pre-gap and post-gap vertical and horizontal branch growth rates were calculated. Effects in the subalpine forest (> 1050 m) were compared with those in the montane zone. Tree mortality was highly episodic, associated with major storms, and patchy. Falling canopy trees destroyed, on average, 1.3 additional trees (> 10 cm diameter at 1 m). About half the trees were uprooted and the remainder broken off. Uprooted angiosperm (canopy) trees frequently resprouted from their bases, gymnosperms rarely. Expanded gap area averaged 56 m² in the sub-alpine forest and 88 m² in the montane zone. Median expanded gap areas were about twice those of light gaps. Gap size frequency distribution was highly skewed. The largest gap was formed by a single Dacrydium cupressinum which destroyed six other trees creating a gap of ca. 0.03 ha. Expanded gaps, light gaps, and root mounds comprised 4.5, 2.8 and 0.1 % of the forest area in the sub-alpine zone, and 3.8, 2.5 and 0.06 % in the montane forest. These values represent 10 years of accumulation, and imply light gap ‘return times’ of 360 years for the sub-alpine and 400 years for the montane forest. These periods are in agreement with the known longevities of the canopy and emergent trees. Vertical shoot growth rate was about twice that in the horizontal plane, and both increased following gap formation. The relative increase was greatest in the subalpine forest. Using the measured growth rates it is estimated that gaps of median dimensions are filled by lateral extension growth in 31–44 yr. Saplings require longer to reach the mean canopy height and consequently require large (multiple tree) gaps or sequential gap events.