产业园区温室气体排放清单

温室气体排放所导致的全球气候变化是国际社会长期关注的热点问题,它严重限制了人类社会的发展并威胁着人类的生存。产业园区通常集中了一个区域主要的生产要素与生产能力,也代表着特定产业在该区域的发展水平,理应作为发展低碳经济的基础单元和减少温室气体排放的重要控制点,也可以成为解决区域资源、环境问题的突破口。明确了产业园区温室气体排放的系统边界和内部结构,梳理了产业园区全生命周期温室气体排放行为,综合考虑产业园区能源消耗、工业生产、物质材料消耗、仪器设备投入、废弃物处理处置、景观绿化等过程,建立产业园区温室气体排放核算方法,并对案例园区进行了清单分析。结果表明:案例园区整个生命周期的温室气体排放量为1872177 t CO2-eq,其中运行管理阶段占全生命周期排放的比例最高,为95.35%。建设阶段的温室气体排放总量中建筑材料消耗引起的排放占到96.95%,主要集中在建筑工程、内部装修工程和外部装饰工程3个环节。运行管理阶段电力消耗、热力消耗和污水处理过程的排放量占到总量的98.69%。根据核算及分析结果提出了案例园区在建设和运行管理阶段实现温室气体减排的建议。     

对农业废弃物和木材残渣进行生物炼制以生产可再生燃料

农业废弃物和木材残渣是生产乙醇和聚合物前体的潜在来源。生物质的使用有可能取代石油和煤炭，从而减少温室气体的排放。美国的生物炼制倡议包括6个主要的商业示范项目，开发更好的生物催化剂的研发新项目，进行新原料和转化技术创造的长期努力。要用生物质生产燃料和化学品，首先必须释放半纤维素糖类和预处理残余纤维素，然后还要水解和发酵所有可用糖。     

对农业废弃物和木材残渣进行生物炼制以生产可再生燃料

农业废弃物和木材残渣是生产乙醇和聚合物前体的潜在来源。生物质的使用有可能取代石油和煤炭，从而减少温室气体的排放。美国的生物炼制倡议包括6个主要的商业示范项目，开发更好的生物催化剂的研发新项目，进行新原料和转化技术创造的长期努力。要用生物质生产燃料和化学品，首先必须释放半纤维素糖类和预处理残余纤维素，然后还要水解和发酵所有可用糖。     

减氮施肥对春玉米-晚稻生产系统碳足迹的影响

随着对气候变化和粮食安全的的日益认识,低碳农业引起了人们的广泛关注.低碳农业的研究需要综合考虑作物产量和温室气体排放,改进氮肥管理可能有助于减缓作物生产系统的温室气体排放,同时实现对作物稳产甚至高产的需求.本试验利用生命周期法研究了不同施氮量(150、225、300 kg N·hm^-2)对春玉米-晚稻轮作系统碳足迹的影响.结果表明: 随着氮肥用量增加,两季作物生产过程中温室气体和碳足迹增加.在春玉米生产过程中,氮肥生产和施用引起的温室气体排放对碳足迹贡献最大,占36.2%～50.2%;而在晚稻生产中,甲烷的排放贡献最大,占42.8%～48.0%,并且随氮肥用量增加甲烷排放增加.当氮肥施用量减少25%(225 kg N·hm^-2)和50%(150 kg N·hm^-2)时,春玉米生产的温室气体排放分别下降了21.9%和44.3%,碳足迹分别下降了20.3%和39.1%;晚稻生产的温室气体排放分别下降了12.3%和20.4%,碳足迹分别降低了13.7%和16.7%.氮肥减量对春玉米产量无显著影响,而晚稻产量在225 kg N·hm^-2施肥量下最高.因此,春玉米氮肥用量降低至150 kg N·hm^-2和晚稻氮肥用量降低至225 kg N·hm^-2不仅能够保持作物高产,而且还能大幅度降低作物系统的碳足迹.     

微藻生物质制备燃料乙醇关键技术研究进展

燃料乙醇作为一种优良的可再生液体燃料,其开发利用受到了人们的广泛关注。微藻是一种高光合、高产生物量的生物质资源,很多的藻体细胞中含有大量的淀粉、纤维素(Iα型)等多糖物质,是制备燃料乙醇的优良原料。发展利用微藻制备燃料乙醇技术工艺,对于缓解我国目前日益短缺的能源问题,减少温室气体排放和环境污染等具有很好的应用前景。综述了国内外利用微藻生物质制备燃料乙醇中所用到的关键技术、存在的问题以及今后的发展前景等。     

杜邦正式投产世界最大纤维素乙醇工厂

<正>2015年10月30日,杜邦公司位于美国爱荷华州内华达市的纤维素生物燃料工厂正式投产,包括爱荷华州州长Terry Brandstad在内的众多贵宾出席了庆典活动。这座生物精炼设施是世界上最大的纤维素乙醇工厂,每年可生产3000万加仑(约1.14亿升)较汽油的温室气体排放量降低90%的清     

生物转化能源草制取纤维素乙醇的研究进展

随着化石燃料的日益枯竭和环境污染的日益加剧,寻找一种绿色能源以代替化石能源成为当今世界迫在眉睫的任务。清洁燃料当中的生物乙醇具有车用价值,可作为化石能源的替代品而受到研究学者的广泛关注。而草本能源植物的生物转化被认为是生物质能源产业化发展的最有效途径之一。能源草作为木质纤维素原料之一,由于其具有生长快,产量高,抗性强等优势而备受瞩目。详细论述了近期国内外以能源草为底物进行纤维素乙醇的生物转化研究进展,从纤维素原料预处理到乙醇发酵工艺等各方面的进展及存在的问题,并对木质纤维素制取生物质能源的生物转化效率,以及全纤维素组分的多级利用进行了简单阐述,以期找出一条产业化生产纤维素乙醇的最优生产模式。     

美研究发现用玉米造生物乙醇燃料 弊大于利

美国一项新研究称，使用玉米等制造生物燃料对环境的影响弊大于利。 由于生物燃料有助于降低人类对化石燃料的依赖并减少温室气体排放，生物燃料领域近年来获得大量投资。但美国华盛顿大学等机构的研究人员在《保护生物学》杂志上发表论文说，他们在对生物燃料进行评估后发现，有些生物燃料并不能取得预期中的环保效果，其中，用玉米为原料生产生物乙醇燃料最不划算。     

利用木质纤维素生产丁醇的研究进展

随着化石燃料的逐年减少,以生物质为原料的生物能源研究近年来成为能源领域的研究热点,充分利用可再生生物质为发展经济的生物燃料生产工艺提供了一个极好的机会。与燃料乙醇和生物柴油相比,生物丁醇更具有优越性,以可再生木质纤维素生物质为原料进行发酵生产丁醇在近年来被广泛的研究。对于利用可再生生物质为原料生产丁醇,需要解决原料的选择、产品收率低、抑制物对生产菌株毒性等问题。本文对以木质纤维素生物质为原料进行生物丁醇发酵过程中的原料预处理、抑制物对丁醇生产菌的影响,以及水解液的脱毒和耐抑制物菌株的选育等方面进行综述,并对以木质纤维素生产燃料丁醇所面临的机遇与问题进行了简要评述。     

生物塑料产业专利分析

生物塑料是在微生物作用下生成的塑料, 或者是以淀粉等天然物质为基础生成的塑料.生物塑料不依赖石油等化石资源,而是以生物质为原料,具有良好的生物相容性、生物可降解性、其降解产物无毒副作用以及能减少温室气体排放等优点,是具有重要意义的新材料.     

Nitrogen rate and landscape impacts on life cycle energy use and emissions from switchgrass‐derived ethanol

Switchgrass‐derived ethanol has been proposed as an alternative to fossil fuels to improve sustainability of the US energy sector. In this study, life cycle analysis (LCA) was used to estimate the environmental benefits of this fuel. To better define the LCA environmental impacts associated with fertilization rates and farm‐landscape topography, results from a controlled experiment were analyzed. Data from switchgrass plots planted in 2008, consistently managed with three nitrogen rates (0, 56, and 112 kg N ha^?1), two landscape positions (shoulder and footslope), and harvested annually (starting in 2009, the year after planting) through 2014 were used as input into the Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions and Energy use in transportation (GREET) model. Simulations determined nitrogen (N) rate and landscape impacts on the life cycle energy and emissions from switchgrass ethanol used in a passenger car as ethanol–gasoline blends (10% ethanol:E10, 85% ethanol:E85s). Results indicated that E85s may lead to lower fossil fuels use (58 to 77%), greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (33 to 82%), and particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions (15 to 54%) in comparison with gasoline. However, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other criteria pollutants such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM10), and sulfur dioxides (SO_x) were higher for E85s than those from gasoline. Nitrogen rate above 56 kg N ha^?1 yielded no increased biomass production benefits; but did increase (up to twofold) GHG, VOCs, and criteria pollutants. Lower blend (E10) results were closely similar to those from gasoline. The landscape topography also influenced life cycle impacts. Biomass grown at the footslope of fertilized plots led to higher switchgrass biomass yield, lower GHG, VOCs, and criteria pollutants in comparison with those at the shoulder position. Results also showed that replacing switchgrass before maximum stand life (10–20 years.) can further reduce the energy and emissions reduction benefits.     

Allocation issues in LCA methodology: a case study of corn stover-based fuel ethanol

Background, aim, and scope

Facing the threat of oil depletion and climate change, a shift from fossil resources to renewables is ongoing to secure long-term low carbon energy supplies. In view of the carbon dioxide reduction targets agreed upon in the Kyoto protocol, bioethanol has become an attractive option for one energy application, as transport fuel. Many studies on the LCA of fuel ethanol have been conducted, and the results vary to a large extent. In most of these studies, only one type of allocation is applied. However, the effect of allocation on outcomes is of crucial importance to LCA as a decision supporting tool. This is only addressed in a few studies to a limited extent. Moreover, most of the studies mainly focus on fossil energy use and GHG emissions. In this paper, a case study is presented wherein a more complete set of impact categories is used. Land use has been left out of account as only hectare data would be given which is obviously dominated by agriculture. Moreover, different allocation methods are applied to assess the sensitivity of the outcomes for allocation choices.

Materials and methods

This study focuses on the comparison of LCA results from the application of different allocation methods by presenting an LCA of gasoline and ethanol as fuels and with two types of blends of gasoline with ethanol, all used in a midsize car. As a main second-generation application growing fast in the USA, corn stover-based ethanol is chosen as a case study. The life cycles of the fuels include gasoline production, corn and stover agriculture, cellulosic ethanol production, blending ethanol with gasoline to produce E10 (10% of ethanol) and E85 (85% of ethanol), and finally the use of gasoline, E10, E85, and ethanol. In this study, a substantially broader set of eight environmental impacts is covered.

Results

LCA results appear to be largely dependent on the allocation methods rendered. The level of abiotic depletion and ozone layer depletion decrease when replacing gasoline by ethanol fuels, irrespective of the allocation method applied, while the rest of the impacts except global warming potential are larger. The results show a reduction of global warming potential when mass/energy allocation is applied; in the case of economic allocation, it gives contrary results. In the expanded systems, global warming potential is significantly reduced comparing to the ones from the allocated systems. A contribution analysis shows that car driving, electricity use for cellulase enzyme production, and ethanol conversion contribute largely to global warming potential from the life cycle of ethanol fuels.

Discussion

The reason why the results of global warming potential show a reverse trend is that the corn/stover allocation ratio shifts from 7.5 to 1.7 when shifting from economic allocation to mass/energy allocation. When mass/energy allocation is applied, both more credits (CO₂ uptake) and more penalties (N₂O emission) in agriculture are allocated to stover compared to the case of economic allocation. However, more CO₂ is taken up than N₂O (in CO₂ eq.) emitted. Hence, the smaller the allocation ratio is between corn and stover, the lower the share of the overall global warming emissions being allocated to ethanol will be. In the system expansion approach, global warming potentials are significantly reduced, resulting in the negative values in all cases. This implies that the system expansion results are comparable to one another because they make the same cutoffs but not really to the results related to mass, energy, and economic value-based allocated systems.

Conclusions

The choice of the allocation methods is essential for the outcomes, especially for global warming potential in this case. The application of economic allocation leads to increased GWP when replacing gasoline by ethanol fuels, while reduction of GWP is achieved when mass/energy allocation is used as well as in the system where biogenic CO₂ is excluded. Ethanol fuels are better options than gasoline when abiotic depletion and ozone layer depletion are concerned. In terms of other environmental impacts, gasoline is a better option, mainly due to the emissions of nutrients and toxic substances connected with agriculture. A clear shift of problems can be detected: saving fossil fuels at the expense of emissions related to agriculture, with GHG benefits depending on allocation choices. The overall evaluation of these fuel options, therefore, depends very much on the importance attached to each impact category.

Recommendations and perspectives

This study focuses only on corn stover-based ethanol as one case. Further studies may include other types of cellulosic feedstocks (i.e., switchgrass or wood), which require less intensive agricultural practice and may lead to better environmental performance of fuel ethanol. Furthermore, this study shows that widely used but different allocation methods determine outcomes of LCA studies on biofuels. This is an unacceptable situation from a societal point of view and a challenge from a scientific point of view. The results from applying just one allocation method are not sufficient for decision making. Comparison of different allocation methods is certainly of crucial importance. A broader approach beyond LCA for the analysis of biorefinery systems with regard to energy conservation, environmental impact, and cost–benefit will provide general indications on the sustainability of bio-based productions.     

Policy Implications of Allocation Methods in the Life Cycle Analysis of Integrated Corn and Corn Stover Ethanol Production

A biorefinery may produce multiple fuels from more than one feedstock. The ability of these fuels to qualify as one of the four types of biofuels under the US Renewable Fuel Standard and to achieve a low carbon intensity score under California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard can be strongly influenced by the approach taken to their life cycle analysis (LCA). For example, in facilities that may co-produce corn grain and corn stover ethanol, the ethanol production processes can share the combined heat and power (CHP) that is produced from the lignin and liquid residues from stover ethanol production. We examine different LCA approaches to corn grain and stover ethanol production considering different approaches to CHP treatment. In the baseline scenario, CHP meets the energy demands of stover ethanol production first, with additional heat and electricity generated sent to grain ethanol production. The resulting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for grain and stover ethanol are 57 and 25 g-CO₂eq/MJ, respectively, corresponding to a 40 and 74 % reduction compared to the GHG emissions of gasoline. We illustrate that emissions depend on allocation of burdens of CHP production and corn farming, along with the facility capacities. Co-product handling techniques can strongly influence LCA results and should therefore be transparently documented.     

The biofuel potential of municipal solid waste

The world in the 21st century is facing a dual crisis of increasing waste and global climate change. Substituting fossil fuels with waste biomass‐derived cellulosic ethanol is a promising strategy to simultaneously meet part of our energy needs, mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and manage municipal solid waste (MSW). However, the global potential of MSW as an energy source is as yet unquantified. Here, we report increasing trends of MSW generation, and waste biomass‐derived cellulosic ethanol potentials in relation to socio‐economic development across 173 countries, and show that globally, up to 82.9 billion litres of waste paper‐derived cellulosic ethanol can be produced worldwide, replacing 5.36% of gasoline consumption, with accompanying GHG emissions savings of between 29.2% and 86.1%.     

Energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from enzyme and yeast manufacture for corn and cellulosic ethanol production

Enzymes and yeast are important ingredients in the production of ethanol, yet the energy consumption and emissions associated with their production are often excluded from life-cycle analyses of ethanol. We provide new estimates for the energy consumed and greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted during enzyme and yeast manufacture, including contributions from key ingredients such as starch, glucose, and molasses. We incorporated these data into Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation model and observed that enzymes and yeast together contribute 1.4 and 27?% of farm-to-pump GHG emissions for corn and cellulosic ethanol, respectively. Over the course of the entire corn ethanol life cycle, yeast and enzymes contribute a negligible amount of GHG emissions, but increase GHG emissions from the cellulosic ethanol life cycle by 5.6?g CO₂e/MJ.     

Life cycle analysis of biochemical cellulosic ethanol under multiple scenarios

Cellulosic ethanol is widely believed to offer substantial environmental advantages over petroleum fuels and grain‐based ethanol, particularly in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from transportation. The environmental impacts of biofuels are largely caused by precombustion activities, feedstock production and conversion facility operations. Life cycle analysis (LCA) is required to understand these impacts. This article describes a field‐to‐blending terminal LCA of cellulosic ethanol produced by biochemical conversion (hydrolysis and fermentation) using corn stover or switchgrass as feedstock. This LCA develops unique models for most elements of the biofuel production process and assigns environmental impact to different phases of production. More than 30 scenarios are evaluated, reflecting a range of feedstock, technology and scale options for near‐term and future facilities. Cellulosic ethanol, as modeled here, has the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared to petroleum‐based liquid transportation fuels, though substantial uncertainty exists. Most of the conservative scenarios estimate GHG emissions of approximately 45–60 g carbon dioxide equivalent per MJ of delivered fuel (g CO₂e MJ^?1) without credit for coproducts, and 20–30 g CO₂e MJ^?1 when coproducts are considered. Under most scenarios, feedstock production, grinding and transport dominate the total GHG footprint. The most optimistic scenarios include sequestration of carbon in soil and have GHG emissions below zero g CO₂e MJ^?1, while the most pessimistic have life‐cycle GHG emissions higher than petroleum gasoline. Soil carbon changes are the greatest source of uncertainty, dominating all other sources of GHG emissions at the upper bound of their uncertainty. Many LCAs of biofuels are narrowly constrained to GHG emissions and energy; however, these narrow assessments may miss important environmental impacts. To ensure a more holistic assessment of environmental performance, a complete life cycle inventory, with over 1100 tracked material and energy flows for each scenario is provided in the online supplementary material for this article.     

A geography‐based critique of new US biofuels regulations

The new renewable fuels standard (RFS 2) aims to distinguish corn‐ethanol that achieves a 20% reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions compared with gasoline. Field data from Kim et al. (2009) and from our own study suggest that geographic variability in the GHG emissions arising from corn production casts considerable doubt on the approach used in the RFS 2 to measure compliance with the 20% target. If regulators wish to require compliance of fuels with specific GHG emission reduction thresholds, then data from growing biomass should be disaggregated to a level that captures the level of variability in grain corn production and the application of life cycle assessment to biofuels should be modified to capture this variability.     

Life cycle assessment of fuel ethanol from cassava in Thailand

Goal and Scope  A well-to-wheel analysis has been conducted for cassava-based ethanol (CE) in Thailand. The aim of the analysis is to assess the potentials of CE in the form of gasohol E10 for promoting energy security and reducing environmental impacts in comparison with conventional gasoline (CG). Method  In the LCA procedure, three separate but interrelated components: inventory analysis, characterization and interpretation were performed for the complete chain of the fuel life cycle. To compare gasohol E10 and CG, this study addressed their impact potentials per gasoline-equivalent litre, taking into account the performance difference between gasohol and gasoline in an explosion motor. Results and Discussions  The results obtained show that CE in the form of E10, along its whole life cycle, reduces certain environmental loads compared to CG. The percentage reductions relative to CG are 6.1% for fossil energy use, 6.0% for global warming potential, 6.8% for acidification, and 12.2% for nutrient enrichment. Using biomass in place of fossil fuels for process energy in the manufacture of ethanol leads to improved overall life cycle energy and environmental performance of ethanol blends relative to CG. Conclusions and Outlook  The LCA brings to light the key areas in the ethanol production cycle that researchers and technicians need to work on to maximize ethanol’s contribution to energy security and environmental sustainability ESS-Submission Editor: Mark Goedkoop (goedkoop@pre.nl)     

Land management change greatly impacts biofuels’ greenhouse gas emissions

Harvesting corn stover for biofuel production may decrease soil organic carbon (SOC) and increase greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Adding additional organic matter into soil or reducing tillage intensity, however, could potentially offset this SOC loss. Here, using SOC and life cycle analysis (LCA) models, we evaluated the impacts of land management change (LMC), that is, stover removal, organic matter addition, and tillage on spatially explicit SOC level and biofuels’ overall life cycle GHG emissions in US corn–soybean production systems. Results indicate that under conventional tillage (CT), 30% stover removal (dry weight) may reduce baseline SOC by 0.04 t C ha^?1 yr^?1 over a 30‐year simulation period. Growing a cover crop during the fallow season or applying manure, on the other hand, could add to SOC and further reduce biofuels’ life cycle GHG emissions. With 30% stover removal in a CT system, cover crop and manure application can increase SOC at the national level by about 0.06 and 0.02 t C ha^?1 yr^?1, respectively, compared to baseline cases without such measures. With contributions from this SOC increase, the life cycle GHG emissions for stover ethanol are more than 80% lower than those of gasoline, exceeding the US Renewable Fuel Standard mandate of 60% emissions reduction in cellulosic biofuels. Reducing tillage intensity while removing stover could also limit SOC loss or lead to SOC gain, which would lower stover ethanol life cycle GHG emissions to near or under the mandated 60% reduction. Without these organic matter inputs or reduced tillage intensity, however, the emissions will not meet this mandate. More efforts are still required to further identify key practical LMCs, improve SOC modeling, and accounting for LMCs in biofuel LCAs that incorporate stover removal.     

Life cycle assessment of renewable diesel production from lignocellulosic biomass

Purpose

Governments around the world encourage the use of biofuels through fuel standard policies that require the addition of renewable diesel in diesel fuel from fossil fuels. Environmental impact studies of the conversion of biomass to renewable diesel have been conducted, and life cycle assessments (LCA) of the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to hydrogenation-derived renewable diesel (HDRD) are limited, especially for countries with cold climates like Canada.

Methods

In this study, an LCA was conducted on converting lignocellulosic biomass to HDRD by estimating the well-to-wheel greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and fossil fuel energy input of the production of biomass and its conversion to HDRD. The approach to conduct this LCA includes defining the goal and scope, compiling a life cycle inventory, conducting a life cycle impact assessment, and executing a life cycle interpretation. All GHG emissions and fossil fuel energy inputs were based on a fast pyrolysis plant capacity of 2000 dry tonnes biomass/day. A functional unit of 1 MJ of HDRD produced was adopted as a common unit for data inputs of the life cycle inventory. To interpret the results, a sensitivity analysis was performed to measure the impact of variables involved, and an uncertainty analysis was performed to assess the confidence of the results.

Results and discussion

The GHG emissions of three feedstocks studied—whole tree (i.e., chips from cutting the whole tree), forest residues (i.e., chips from branches and tops generated from logging operations), and agricultural residues (i.e., straw from wheat and barley)—range from 35.4 to 42.3 g CO_2,eq/MJ of HDRD (i.e., lowest for agricultural residue- and highest for forest residue-based HDRD); this is 53.4–61.1 % lower than fossil-based diesel. The net energy ratios range from 1.55 to 1.90 MJ/MJ (i.e., lowest for forest residue- and highest for agricultural residue-based HDRD) for HDRD production. The difference in results among feedstocks is due to differing energy requirements to harvest and pretreat biomass. The energy-intensive hydroprocessing stage is responsible for most of the GHG emissions produced for the entire conversion pathway.

Conclusions

Comparing feedstocks showed the significance of the efficiency in the equipment used and the physical properties of biomass in the production of HDRD. The overall results show the importance of efficiency at the hydroprocessing stage. These findings indicate significant GHG mitigation benefits for the oil refining industry using available lignocellulosic biomass to produce HDRD for transportation fuel.