Sonic hedgehog signaling from the urethral epithelium controls external genital development

External genital development begins with formation of paired genital swellings, which develop into the genital tubercle. Proximodistal outgrowth and axial patterning of the genital tubercle are coordinated to give rise to the penis or clitoris. The genital tubercle consists of lateral plate mesoderm, surface ectoderm, and endodermal urethral epithelium derived from the urogenital sinus. We have investigated the molecular control of external genital development in the mouse embryo. Previous work has shown that the genital tubercle has polarizing activity, but the precise location of this activity within the tubercle is unknown. We reasoned that if the tubercle itself is patterned by a specialized signaling region, then polarizing activity may be restricted to a subset of cells. Transplantation of urethral epithelium, but not genital mesenchyme, to chick limbs results in mirror-image duplication of the digits. Moreover, when grafted to chick limbs, the urethral plate orchestrates morphogenetic movements normally associated with external genital development. Signaling activity is therefore restricted to urethral plate cells. Before and during normal genital tubercle outgrowth, urethral plate epithelium expresses Sonic hedgehog (Shh). In mice with a targeted deletion of Shh, external genitalia are absent. Genital swellings are initiated, but outgrowth is not maintained. In the absence of Shh signaling, Fgf8, Bmp2, Bmp4, Fgf10, and Wnt5a are downregulated, and apoptosis is enhanced in the genitalia. These results identify the urethral epithelium as a signaling center of the genital tubercle, and demonstrate that Shh from the urethral epithelium is required for outgrowth, patterning, and cell survival in the developing external genitalia.     

Molecular and genetic regulation of testis descent and external genitalia development

Testicular descent as a prerequisite for the production of mature spermatozoa and normal external genitalia morphogenesis, and therefore facilitating copulation and internal fertilization, are essential developmental steps in reproduction of vertebrate species. Cryptorchidism, the failure of testis descent, and feminization of external genitalia in the male, usually in the form of hypospadias, in which the opening of the urethra occurs along the ventral aspect of the penis, are the most frequent pediatric complications. Thus, elucidating the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of testis descent and the formation of external genitalia merits a special focus. Natural and transgenic rodent models have demonstrated both morphogenic processes to be under the control of a plethora of genetic factors with complex time-, space-, and dose-restricted expression pattern. The review elucidates the molecular mechanisms involved in the regulation of testis descent and the formation of external genitalia and, wherever possible, assesses the differences between these rodent animal models and other mammalian species, including human.     

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of neuronal migration in neocortical development

The complicated mammalian brain structure arises from accurate movements of neurons from their birthplace to their final locations. Detailed observation of this migration process by various methods revealed that neuronal migration is highly motile and that there are different modes of migration. Moreover, mouse mutants or human disorders that disrupt normal migration have provided significant insights into molecular pathways that control the neuronal migration. Although our knowledge is still fragmentary, it is becoming clear that various molecules are participating in this process. In this review, we outline about the cellular and molecular mechanisms of neuronal migration in the cerebral cortex.     

飞蝗嗅觉的细胞与分子机制研究进展

生命的进化依赖于其周边的化学环境,通过对这些化学物质的感受,适应环境,生命得以繁衍。直到现在,各种有机体仍然保留着这种古老而有效的感知方式。飞蝗是世界性的农业大害虫,其很多行为如远距离迁飞、聚集、取食、产卵等是其造成灾害的重要生物学因素,而这些行为都与其感受化学信息相关。深入研究飞蝗感受化学信息的机制对于揭示生物感受化学信息的分子和细胞机制的多样性,设计出可以激发或钝化这些蛋白质的引诱剂或忌避剂,进而防治害虫等具有重要意义。该文主要介绍了该课题组在东亚飞蝗(Locusta migratoria manilesis)感受化学信息机制方面的一些进展。通过超微结构研究发现在飞蝗触角上至少有毛形、锥形、腔锥形和刺形4种类型的化学感受器,明确了各种感受器的超微结构特征,其中毛形和锥形是重要的嗅觉感受器。以此为基础,单感受器电位记录试验结果表明飞蝗触角上的毛形感受器至少有7种功能亚型,其中5种亚型每个感受器含有2个神经原,2种亚型每个感受器含有3种神经原。初步明确了飞蝗毛形感受器神经原对一些化学信息的编码特征。在飞蝗的触角中鉴定出了飞蝗气味分子结合蛋白(LmigOBP1),通过免疫细胞化学定位实验证明该蛋白特异表达在飞蝗毛形和锥形感受器的淋巴液中,而且在胚胎即将孵化前就开始表达,此后在各个胚后发育时期都表达,说明该蛋白可能参与飞蝗胚后发育的所有阶段的嗅觉活动。采用荧光竞争结合实验方法,明确了LmigOBP1对有15～17个碳原子的直链的脂肪族醇、酯或醛有很强的亲和力,说明该蛋白有结合特异性。采用生物信息学技术模拟出了更为合理的LmigOBP1的三维结构,通过对接实验,提出了飞蝗气味分子结合蛋白结合腔中可能参与结合十五醇的氨基酸残基。之后通过定点氨基酸突变将59位的丝氨酸、74位的天冬酰氨和87位的缬氨酸分别用丙氨酸替代获得三个突变体蛋白(S59A、N74A、V87A),通过与野生型蛋白荧光竞争结合实验结果的比较,发现突变体S59A的结合模式与野生型相同,N74A几乎丧失了全部结合能力,而V87A则对有些气味分子的结合能力有较大改变。因此,位于结合腔开口处的74位天冬酰氨是该蛋白的重要结合位点,而位于结合腔底部的87位缬氨酸也是结合位点。结合前人的结果,我们首次提出了昆虫气味分子结合蛋白依赖位于结合腔开口处的亲水性氨基酸实现对气味分子的初始识别的假说。文章最后对今后研究的一些重点进行了讨论。     

肝纤维化的细胞和分子机制

肝脏纤维化(hepatic fibrosis)是多种慢性肝病的共同病理基础,是进一步向肝硬化发展的中心环节。肝脏内一些免疫细胞如枯否细胞(Kupffer cell,KC)、树突状细胞(dendritic cell,DC)、T淋巴细胞、NK细胞(nature killer cell,NK cell)、B细胞等在多种致病因素刺激下激活,释放多种细胞因子和趋化因子,引起一系列病理变化,共同参与肝纤维化的发生和发展过程。本文主要从肝脏内各类免疫细胞以及分泌的细胞因子方面,对肝纤维化形成机制的最新研究进展进行综述。