经典Wnt 信号通路在牙齿发育中的研究新进展

经典Wnt信号通路是参与胚胎及器官发育的四大信号传导途径之一,在牙齿发育中扮演了重要的角色。本文对其中的β-catenin,Lef1,Apc,Axin2这4个关键因子在牙齿发育中研究的新进展做了简要的概述:β-catenin在间充质中会调控多个信号,影响牙上皮和间充质相互作用;Lef1会和Tcf家族一道调控上皮细胞命运;Apc能抑制多余牙齿的形成;Axin2在牙晚期发育中影响牙本质的形成。通过这些因子的研究,希望人们能在牙齿再生等生物医学工程上有新的突破。     

鸟类仍保留牙齿发生定位的分子机制

众所周知现代鸟类不长牙齿,而其侏罗纪和白垩纪的祖先则长有牙齿,然而,在发育中鸡胚口腔中却残留着牙齿发生的原基,在形态上与哺乳动物臼牙牙原基极为相似,现代鸟类的胚胎组织是否具有牙齿发育的潜能,目前已有不少研究者对这一问题进行了探讨,Kollar和Fisher等人将鸡胚胎下颌靠近口腔面的上皮与小鼠的牙间充质进行组织重组实验,并植入小鼠眼球中作intraocular grafting培养,他们的实验结果表明重组后的组织块可以发育形成牙齿的结构,包括形成成釉细胞（ameloblast),并能分泌釉质,Kollar等认为在进化进程中鸟类牙齿的消失并非由于口腔上皮中有关釉质合成的遗传信息的丢失,而是牙齿发育过程中的组织之间所必须的相互作用（次级诱导）受阻而造成的。Lemus和Fuenzalida等人的实验结果进一步证实了这一结论。他们用鹌鹑胚胎躯体的上皮组织与蜥蚁或兔子的牙间充质重组后,用鸡胚绒毛进行培养,得到了发育很好的牙齿结构,发现鹌鹑的上皮细胞也可以分形成釉质细胞,并分泌牙釉质,Cummings将鹌鹑胚胎的牙上皮组织与小鼠胚胎的牙间充质组织重组后也得到类似的结果。根据小白鼠牙齿发育中已知的调控分子信号通路,我们曾对鸟类不长牙齿的分子机制进行了研究,我们的研究发现鸟类牙组织仍保留与哺乳动物早期牙齿发生相类似的信号通路,能表达相关的基因并产生相应的信号分子,鸟类牙齿发育停滞在牙原基时期的可能原因是Bmp4不在预定牙上皮组织中表达,导致发育信号的传递受阻,因此,鸟类胚胎的牙原基组织是一个很好的实验模型,用于研究上皮与间充质组织之间的相互作用,导致器官发育的分子机制。在本研究中,我们又进一步对鸡胚发育中与牙原基定位的有关分子信号通路进行了研究,研究证实了,与小白鼠的发育相似,在鸡胚发育中,在任何可见的牙齿发生了形态变化出现之前,Pax9作为预定牙间充质的标记基因（Fig.1),利用体外器官培养,组织重组和原位杂交等方法,证实了Pax9在下颚间充质中的定位表达是由其上方上皮中的两种信号分子所决定（Fig.2),其中FGF8诱导Pax9的表达（Fig.3).而BMP4则抑制该表达（Fig.4)。通过这两种信号之间的诘抗作用决定了间充质中Pax9的表达部位,亦即牙原基的发生部位,因此,与小白鼠相似,在鸟类中牙原基的发生部位是由两类具有诘抗作用的信号分子所决定的,本研究结果进一步证实了在鸟类胚胎发育过程中仍保留与牙齿发育有关的早期信号通路。     

牙齿发育与BMP信号通路的关系

牙齿的发育过程,包括由胚胎早期预定成牙部位到发育形成完整的牙齿,是一个复杂的连续过程,牙齿的发育过程实际上就是牙源性上皮和颅神经嵴来源的牙源性间充质之间的相互作用的结果.骨形态发生蛋白(BMPs)最初被认为是一种具有高效骨诱导性的蛋白,能够诱导未分化的间充质细胞转化形成软骨以及骨组织,之后的研究证明BMPs在胚胎发育过程中起到至关重要的作用.至今为止经过众多科学家的研究,牙齿发育与BMP信号通路的关系已经研究的相当透彻.     

牙齿发育的分子机制

在牙齿发育过程中,已知BMPs和FGFs信号通路在上皮和间充质之间的序的相互作用中起着重要的作用。BMP4是启动牙形态发生的一个关键的信号分子。转录因子Msx基因主要起信号介导和传递的作用。已发现鸟类仍具有牙齿发育的潜能。鸟类牙齿发育停止在牙原基阶段的可能原因是Bmp4不在预定的牙胚组织中表达,导致发育信号的传递受阻。     

外胚间充质干细胞在牙组织工程的应用与基因调控

用干细胞构建组织工程化牙齿是近年来口腔医学领域的研究热点,外胚间充质干细胞是目前已知牙源性干细胞的共同前体细胞,细胞的生物学特性和成牙信号分子环境是牙齿发育与再生的核心与关键,并贯穿于牙齿形成的全过程,是研究牙组织工程最具潜力的种子细胞,明确外胚间充质干细胞成牙分化能力及相关表型特征和分化特性,对进一步深入认识牙齿发育与再生机理具有重要作用。     

红景天苷通过Wnt/β-catenin信号通路影响小鼠骨髓间充质干细胞向神经元细胞定向分化

目的:以小鼠骨髓间充质干细胞系D1细胞为研究对象,探讨Wnt/β-catenin信号通路介导的红景天苷诱导D1细胞向神经细胞的定向分化。方法:实验分为对照组(D/F12完全培养基)和红景天苷诱导组(100μg/mL+D/F12完全培养基).将细胞分别诱导12、24、48和72 h后,采用细胞免疫荧光化学染色方法检测β-catenin和Gsk-3β的阳性细胞率。利用红景天苷分别诱导MSCs 1,2,8,12,24,48和72 h后,利用实时PCR技术检测Wnt/β-catenin信号通路的关键信号分子wnt3a、Axin2、Lrp6和Gsk-3βmRNA的表达;采用Westernblot方法分析D1细胞诱导12、24、48和72 h后,β-catenin和Gsk-3β蛋白的表达;运用Wnt/β-catenin信号通路特异性阻断剂DKK1阻断Wnt/β-catenin信号通路,Western blot方法分析红景天苷对β-catenin和NSE蛋白表达的影响。结果:红景天苷诱导24 h时β-catenin的阳性率可达55.76%,与其他组和对照组比较差异具有统计学意义(P<0.01),诱导24 h后Gsk-3β的阳性率与其他时间和对照组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。实时PCR检测结果显示,红景天苷诱导MSCs不同时间能促进Wnt/β-catenin信号通路中关键信号分子Wnt3a、Ax-in2、Lrp6和Gsk-3βmRNA的表达,诱导不同时间Wnt3a、Axin2、Lrp6和Gsk-3βmRNA的表达不尽相同。Westernblot结果表明,红景天苷诱导D1细胞12 h和24 h时β-catenin蛋白的表达明显上调,且与其他组比较差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05);随着作用时间的延长,Gsk-3β蛋白的表达增加且差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05),阻断Wnt/β-catenin信号通路后,β-catenin和NSE蛋白的表达水平明显下调。结论:红景天苷能诱导D1细胞定向分化为神经元样细胞,红景天苷通过激活Wnt/β-catenin信号通路实现其诱导MSCs向神经细胞定向分化。     

长链非编码RNA介导Wnt/β-catenin信号通路调控骨代谢的研究进展

骨代谢的平衡取决于骨形成及骨吸收之间的动态平衡,Wnt/β-catenin信号通路能够广泛参与骨吸收及骨形成的调控,在维持骨代谢平衡中发挥着重要作用。近年来有研究表明,长链非编码RNA (Long non-coding RNA,lncRNA)也广泛参与骨代谢各阶段的调节,还能通过Wnt/β-catenin信号通路参与骨代谢平衡的调控。目前关于lncRNA介导Wnt/β-catenin信号通路调控骨代谢的综述报道较为鲜见。鉴于此,文中主要以Wnt/β-catenin信号通路为切入点,概述lncRNA在骨代谢中的调控作用,发现lncRNA能够通过靶向作用于miRNA间接调控Wnt/β-catenin信号通路,也能通过Wnt/β-catenin信号通路上的关键因子直接激活或抑制Wnt/β-catenin信号通路,进而发挥其对骨代谢的调控作用,这些发现为lncRNA调控骨代谢作用机制的研究提供了新的思路和方向。     

鸟类仍保留牙齿发生定位的分子机制(英文)

众所周知现代鸟类不长牙齿,而其侏罗纪和白垩纪的祖先则长有牙齿。然而,在发育中鸡胚口腔中却残留着牙齿发生的原基,在形态上与哺乳动物臼牙牙原基极为相似。现代鸟类的胚胎组织是否具有牙齿发育的潜能,目前已有不少研究者对这一问题进行了探讨。Kollar和Fisher 等人将鸡胚胎下颌靠近口腔面的上皮与小鼠的牙间充质进行组织重组实验,并植入小鼠眼球中作intraocular grafting培养。他们的实验结果表明重组后的组织块可以发育形成牙齿的结构,包括形成成釉细胞(ameloblast),并能分泌釉质。Kollar等认为在进化过程中鸟类牙齿的消失并非由于口腔上皮中有关釉质合成的遗传信息的丢失,而是牙齿发育过程中的组织之间所必须的相互作用(次级诱导)受阻而造成的。Lemus和Fuenzalida等人的实验结果进一步证实了这一结论。他们用鹌鹑胚胎躯体的上皮组织与蜥蚁或兔子的牙间充质重组后,用鸡胚绒毛膜法进行培养,得到了发育很好的牙齿结构。发现鹌鹑的上皮细胞也可以分化形成釉质细胞,并分泌牙釉质。Cummings 将鹌鹑胚胎的牙上皮组织与小鼠胚胎的牙间充质组织重组后也得到类似的结果。根据小白鼠牙齿发育中已知的调控分子信号通路,我们曾对鸟类不长牙齿的分子机制进行了研究。我们的研究发现鸟类牙胚组织仍保留     

β-catenin的生物学功能与调控机制

β-连环蛋白（β-catenin）是一种胞内糖蛋白,具有双重功能。一是作为附着连接的组成部分,与钙黏蛋白结合形成复合体参与细胞间连接;二是作为信号分子,是Wnt信号途径的重要环节,在胚胎发育和肿瘤发生中起重要作用。β-catenin选择何种途径发挥作用,与不同配体竞争性结合密切相关。目前已经证实β-catenin Y142位点酪氨酸磷酸化是决定β-catenin功能的关键调控点,而E—cadherin、Left、APC和α-catenin均参与β—catenin活性的调节,对细胞的命运有着重要影响。     

过表达β-catenin诱导人表皮干细胞向成釉质细胞分化

人表皮干细胞可作为上皮源性的成体干细胞可应用于人类牙齿再生,但是其诱导效率较低。该研究利用过表达手段上调Wnt/β-catenin信号通路核心因子β-catenin在人表皮干细胞的表达,以期提高诱导其向成釉质细胞分化的效率。分别构建β-catenin和β-catenin（S33Y）基因的慢病毒载体,转染293T细胞生产病毒液并感染人表皮干细胞,采用Western blot检测人表皮干细胞感染后β-catenin的蛋白表达水平;然后与具有诱导成牙潜能的小鼠牙胚间充质进行重组,移植裸鼠体内培养;嵌合体组织切片染色和免疫组化检测形成牙齿的效率（成牙率）和成釉质细胞分化的效率（成釉率）。结果显示,过表达β-catenin的人表皮干细胞的重组嵌合体的成釉率提高至100%。提示,过表达β-catenin可诱导人表皮干细胞向成釉质细胞分化。     

Dickkopf1--a new player in modelling the Wnt pathway

The Wnt signaling pathway transducing the stabilization of β-catenin is essential for metazoan embryo development and is misregulated in many diseases such as cancers. In recent years models have been proposed for the Wnt signaling pathway during the segmentation process in developing embryos. Many of these include negative feedback loops where Axin2 plays a key role. However, Axin2 null mice show no segmentation phenotype. We therefore propose a new model where the negative feedback involves Dkk1 rather than Axin2. We show that this model can exhibit the same type of oscillations as the previous models with Axin2 and as observed in experiments. We show that a spatial Wnt gradient can consistently convert this temporal periodicity into the spatial periodicity of somites, provided the oscillations in new cells arising in the presomitic mesoderm are synchronized with the oscillations of older cells. We further investigate the hypothesis that a change in the Wnt level in the tail bud during the later stages of somitogenesis can lengthen the time period of the oscillations and hence the size and separation of the later somites.     

The Roles of Intrinsic Disorder in Orchestrating the Wnt-Pathway

Abstract

The canonical Wnt-pathway plays a number of crucial roles in the development of organism. Malfunctions of this pathway lead to various diseases including cancer. In the inactivated state, this pathway involves five proteins, Axin, CKI-α, GSK-3β, APC, and β-catenin. We analyzed these proteins by a number of computational tools, such as PONDR®VLXT, PONDR®VSL2, MoRF-II predictor and Hydrophobic Cluster Analysis (HCA) to show that each of the Wnt-pathway proteins contains several intrinsically disordered regions. Based on a comprehensive analysis of published data we conclude that these disordered regions facilitate protein-protein interactions, post-translational modifications, and signaling. The scaffold protein Axin and another large protein, APC, act as flexible concentrators in gathering together all other proteins involved in the Wnt-pathway, emphasizing the role of intrinsically disordered regions in orchestrating the complex protein-protein interactions. We further explore the intricate roles of highly disordered APC in regulation of β-catenin function. Intrinsically disordered APC helps the collection of β-catenin from cytoplasm, facilitates the β-catenin delivery to the binding sites on Axin, and controls the final detachment of β-catenin from Axin.     

Gtpbp2 is a positive regulator of Wnt signaling and maintains low levels of the Wnt negative regulator Axin

Background

Canonical Wnt signals, transduced by stabilized β-catenin, play similar roles across animals in maintaining stem cell pluripotency, regulating cell differentiation, and instructing normal embryonic development. Dysregulated Wnt/β-catenin signaling causes diseases and birth defects, and a variety of regulatory processes control this pathway to ensure its proper function and integration with other signaling systems. We previously identified GTP-binding protein 2 (Gtpbp2) as a novel regulator of BMP signaling, however further exploration revealed that Gtpbp2 can also affect Wnt signaling, which is a novel finding reported here.

Results

Knockdown of Gtpbp2 in Xenopus embryos causes severe axial defects and reduces expression of Spemann-Mangold organizer genes. Gtpbp2 knockdown blocks responses to ectopic Wnt8 ligand, such as organizer gene induction in ectodermal tissue explants and induction of secondary axes in whole embryos. However, organizer gene induction by ectopic Nodal2 is unaffected by Gtpbp2 knockdown. Epistasis tests, conducted by activating Wnt signal transduction at sequential points in the canonical pathway, demonstrate that Gtpbp2 is required downstream of Dishevelled and Gsk3β but upstream of β-catenin, which is similar to the previously reported effects of Axin1 overexpression in Xenopus embryos. Focusing on Axin in Xenopus embryos, we find that knockdown of Gtpbp2 elevates endogenous or exogenous Axin protein levels. Furthermore, Gtpbp2 fusion proteins co-localize with Dishevelled and co-immunoprecipitate with Axin and Gsk3b.

Conclusions

We conclude that Gtpbp2 is required for canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling in Xenopus embryos. Our data suggest a model in which Gtpbp2 suppresses the accumulation of Axin protein, a rate-limiting component of the β-catenin destruction complex, such that Axin protein levels negatively correlate with Gtpbp2 levels. This model is supported by the similarity of our Gtpbp2-Wnt epistasis results and previously reported effects of Axin overexpression, the physical interactions of Gtpbp2 with Axin, and the correlation between elevated Axin protein levels and lost Wnt responsiveness upon Gtpbp2 knockdown. A wide variety of cancer-causing Wnt pathway mutations require low Axin levels, so development of Gtpbp2 inhibitors may provide a new therapeutic strategy to elevate Axin and suppress aberrant β-catenin signaling in cancer and other Wnt-related diseases.

     

The roles of intrinsic disorder in orchestrating the Wnt-pathway

The canonical Wnt-pathway plays a number of crucial roles in the development of organism. Malfunctions of this pathway lead to various diseases including cancer. In the inactivated state, this pathway involves five proteins, Axin, CKI-α, GSK-3β, APC, and β-catenin. We analyzed these proteins by a number of computational tools, such as PONDR(r)VLXT, PONDR(r)VSL2, MoRF-II predictor and Hydrophobic Cluster Analysis (HCA) to show that each of the Wnt-pathway proteins contains several intrinsically disordered regions. Based on a comprehensive analysis of published data we conclude that these disordered regions facilitate protein-protein interactions, post-translational modifications, and signaling. The scaffold protein Axin and another large protein, APC, act as flexible concentrators in gathering together all other proteins involved in the Wnt-pathway, emphasizing the role of intrinsically disordered regions in orchestrating the complex protein-protein interactions. We further explore the intricate roles of highly disordered APC in regulation of β-catenin function. Intrinsically disordered APC helps the collection of β-catenin from cytoplasm, facilitates the b-catenin delivery to the binding sites on Axin, and controls the final detachment of β-catenin from Axin.     

Vitamin D receptor deficiency enhances Wnt/β-catenin signaling and tumor burden in colon cancer

Aberrant activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway is critical for the initiation and progression of most colon cancers. This activation provokes the accumulation of nuclear β-catenin and the induction of its target genes. Apc(min/+) mice are the most commonly used model for colon cancer. They harbor a mutated Apc allele and develop intestinal adenomas and carcinomas during the first months of life. This phenotype is caused by the mutation of the second Apc allele and the consequent accumulation of nuclear β-catenin in the affected cells. Here we describe that vitamin D receptor (VDR) is a crucial modulator of nuclear β-catenin levels in colon cancer in vivo. By appropriate breeding of Apc(min/+) mice and Vdr(+/-) mice we have generated animals expressing a mutated Apc allele and two, one, or none Vdr wild type alleles. Lack of Vdr increased the number of colonic Aberrant Crypt Foci (ACF) but not that of adenomas or carcinomas in either small intestine or colon. Importantly, colon ACF and tumors of Apc(min/+)Vdr(-/-) mice had increased nuclear β-catenin and the tumors reached a larger size than those of Apc(min/+)Vdr(+/+). Both ACF and carcinomas in Apc(min/+)Vdr(-/-) mice showed higher expression of β-catenin/TCF target genes. In line with this, VDR knock-down in cultured human colon cancer cells enhanced β-catenin nuclear content and target gene expression. Consistently, VDR depletion abrogated the capacity of 1,25(OH)(2)D(3) to promote the relocation of β-catenin from the nucleus to the plasma membrane and to inhibit β-catenin/TCF target genes. In conclusion, VDR controls the level of nuclear β-catenin in colon cancer cells and can therefore attenuate the impact of oncogenic mutations that activate the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.