自尊研究综述

自尊是一个系统,它不仅涉及了个体的认知层面,还包括个体的情感层面,并且根据个体所处的特定的情景,其表现有时稳定,有时不稳定。自尊的情感模型主要探讨了自尊的组成成分与自尊的起源;自尊的认知模型把自尊看成个体对自己作为人的价值的有意识判断;以恐惧管理理论为代表的自尊的社会学模型又从新的角度解释了自尊的理论模型。罗森伯格的自尊量表开启了自尊测量的先河,我国学者在自尊的测量方面也取得了相应的进展。同时,从社会比较理论与评价性反馈两个角度阐述了自尊的作用。自尊的研究遍布群体从幼儿、青少年到大学生,都有丰富的实证研究。自尊结构的研究领域内出现了一些新进展,主要表现在内隐自尊、具体自尊及集体自尊研究的逐步兴起。     

鸦科鸟类认知研究回顾

动物认知能力高低及认知在动物中的进化是动物研究领域面对的难题之一。鸦科鸟类在工具使用、情景记忆、抑制控制等方面有着与类人猿媲美的优异表现。本文对过去三四十年间主要的鸦科鸟类认知研究进行了分类与汇总,并将上述认知研究划分为一般认知、物理认知、社会认知等三类。一般认知能力或者称为认知基础,是指具有普遍性的能力因素,是在解决不同问题时都能表现出来的相同的心理特质;物理认知指个体对自然规律的认知,主要包括客体永久性、数能力、工具的使用等;社会认知主要指个体对其他个体的心理状态、行为动机和意向作出推测与判断的过程。本文介绍了上述三类认知能力的主要研究范式,旨在为国内动物认知研究提供理论依据。目前的研究更多地集中于鸦属的鸟类,对于鸦科中其他鸟类或是雀形目中其他鸟类的认知研究尚不充足。此外,鸦科鸟类的社会性、分布范围、觅食策略等生态因素具有显著差异,在后续的研究中,我们应该关注生态因素对鸦科鸟类认知能力的影响,或是结合鸦科鸟类的生境及习性设计出更加合理的研究范式。     

多目标视觉追踪中的分组效应及其可加性

如何减少注意资源的消耗、提升人类在动态视觉持续性注意任务中的表现,是持续性注意研究关注的重点问题,具有理论和实践的重要意义。多目标追踪任务是研究个体持续性注意的常用实验室方法。多目标追踪任务中,观察者可以利用基于物体特征的分组效应将多个运动目标知觉为一个更大的运动单元,从而减少注意资源的消耗、提高追踪任务表现。为了进一步节省注意资源、提升注意追踪的表现,研究者提出了注意追踪中分组效应的可加性问题。分组效应的可加性表现为基于两个及以上特征的分组对追踪表现的提高优于基于一个特征的分组。可加性的研究对理解不同分组效应的认知机制,个体动态视觉追踪中的注意机制和注意资源分配等具有重要意义。本文对以往的行为以及神经影像学研究进行了汇总,讨论了不同类型分组效应的知觉加工机制及其可加性,系统阐述了基于不同表面特征的不可加性,和基于表面特征与特定时空特征可加性的认知及其神经基础。未来可以从行为学实验角度探究更多基于不同特征分组效应的可加性,或者从注意追踪中基于不同分组效应的神经机制入手,探讨分组效应的可加性问题,为分组效应的分类及可加性研究提供更多认知和神经层面的依据。     

共情的毕生发展及其神经基础

共情是指个体感知或想象他人的情绪状态,部分体验到他人感受,并做出适当反应的能力.当前时代背景下,从神经科学角度出发,采用神经影像学方法,探究共情的神经基础,把握共情的毕生发展规律,并针对性地提升个体共情能力对社会发展至关重要.目前的研究发现,共情的发展具有阶段性,个体的共情于婴幼儿期便已开始萌芽;儿童中期开始,个体共情反应表现得更加灵活、可控;从青少年到成年早期,个体的共情发展已趋于成熟;进入成年中晚期后情绪共情回升,认知共情有所下降.目前共情神经基础领域的研究多集中在儿童期、青少年期和成年早期,着重探讨共情相关的大脑区域和大脑网络,以及个体的共情水平、特点与大脑结构或功能特征之间的关系.本文在梳理以往共情毕生发展和神经科学相关研究的基础上,从测量、技术路线、研究切入点以及研究成果转化等方面对该领域的未来研究方向进行了展望,并对国内该领域研究的发展路线进行了一定规划.     

虎皮鹦鹉的认知表现及关联

许多研究认为,不同个体的认知能力存在差异,同一个体的多种认知表现之间可能存在关联。然而,目前对动物认知表现关联的研究结果存在诸多矛盾和争议。本研究以虎皮鹦鹉（Melopsittacus undulatus）为研究对象,通过自我控制、联想学习和反转学习三项认知实验,探究三项表现的联系。实验结果发现,在虎皮鹦鹉中,联想学习表现越好,反转学习亦表现越好。个体对实验装置的新异恐惧（对新环境或新事物的恐惧）越弱,自我控制表现越好。雌、雄个体在三项认知实验中的表现没有显著差异。综上所述,虎皮鹦鹉的一些认知能力存在关联,这暗示了虎皮鹦鹉中可能存在一般认知能力（“g”）。新异恐惧与自我控制表现的强烈相关,说明了勇敢程度可能会影响认知表现。     

基于扎根理论的社区参与国家公园建设与管理的机制研究

大量研究表明自然保护地周边社区居民对保护地的态度是影响社区参与保护，实现保护地管理目标的主要因素，由此建立了"认知-态度-参与"的行为逻辑。中国国家公园体制建设希望进一步推进社区与保护地的关系，全面提升自然保护管理效率，也建立在对这一行为逻辑的认同之上。为验证社区认知与行为的关系，并为促进不同利益相关者参与国家公园建设与管理提供科学支持，研究试图分析武夷山国家公园体制试点区社区居民的国家公园的"认知-态度-参与"的行为逻辑以揭示社区参与国家公园建设与管理的深层机制。与一般研究不同在于，本研究是针对正在建设中的国家公园，使得本地利益相关方的态度有机会影响国家公园建设进程。为获得社区"认知-态度-参与"核心观念，探索社区参与的过程和方式，提出促进社区参与的方法，研究采用扎根理论这一质性研究方法，基于对本地利益相关者采用半结构化开放问题的深度访谈，归纳出概念与范畴，形成社区参与国家公园建设与管理的理论。研究首先形成45个概念与13个范畴，通过范式模型研究发现，稳定资源使用权利、引导社区参与决策、保障社区发展权利、创新社区产业模式、提高个体适应能力、降低政策风险影响等六个主范畴能够解释社区居民对国家公园的认知-态度-参与这一行为逻辑。通过归纳主范畴，研究进一步提炼出社区参与国家公园建设与管理的理论核心在于社区自然资源管理的自主性、创新性与适应性，其内在机制在于社区参与是一个自主性提高的动态过程，需要通过保障社区生计资源禀赋来实现长期的价值转化，最终使其成为社会-生态系统适应性治理的组成部分。在理论阐释基础上，研究提出从改善社区认知、提升社区参与角度推进国家公园建设的路径。研究也指出，所提出的社区参与机制理论能够提炼量化指标评价社区参与，追踪武夷山国家公园体制试点进程。     

动作发展神经科学:未来路径与布局

儿童早期动作的发展可视为个体早期的外显智力,动作的毕生发展与个体认知发展及个性和社会性发展密切相关.认知神经学科和脑科学技术的革命性发展为研究动作领域的毕生发展的神经机制提供了基础和契机.从毕生发展的角度看,动作的产生以及动作技能的获得是婴儿阶段发育的里程碑;到了儿童青少年期,动作技能的有效性、精确性和稳定性均得到提高;成年早期到晚期,运动能力经历了巅峰到明显衰退的转变.目前关于动作的神经机制的研究主要探究了毕生发展过程中动作的产生、发展、衰退背后的大脑结构变化及大脑网络连接的改变.本文从认知科学和认知神经科学角度回顾了个体动作在婴幼儿期、儿童青少年期及成年期等阶段的发展特点及其背后的神经机制,提出了未来该领域认知神经科学方向面临的挑战及亟待解决的问题,并对国内该领域未来的研究和发展进行了分析和预测.     

A型肉毒毒素注射影响情绪加工的认知神经机制

A型肉毒毒素（简称肉毒素）可引起可逆的局部肌肉麻痹，注射于特定面部肌肉可影响个体的情绪体验，还会干扰个体对情绪性材料（面部表情、语言文字和视频）中情绪信息的加工。认知神经科学研究发现，注射肉毒素会影响杏仁核的激活，影响奖赏系统的功能，以及其他大脑皮层的认知神经功能。面部反馈假说和社会反馈假说分别从个体与社会层面对肉毒素的作用加以解释：注射肉毒素使被注射者的肌肉反馈减少，弱化相应情绪的体验和加工；人际交往中，面部模仿使观察者的情绪体验与被注射者趋同，反过来同样影响被注射者的情绪体验。基于已有研究，本文提出面部反馈与社会反馈的整合模型对注射肉毒素影响情绪加工的认知神经机制进行系统阐释。未来研究可拓展相关的研究范式和方法，关注肉毒素注射对不同层面和水平的情绪加工的影响，及其相应的认知神经机制，进一步明确面部反馈与社会反馈的相互作用，并且考察肉毒素用于抑郁症等心理疾病治疗的作用机制。     

老化认知神经科学:研究现状与未来展望

人口老龄化已经成为我国乃至全球面临的一个严峻的社会问题.开展老化认知神经科学研究,从认知、脑结构和脑功能层面揭示脑老化的机制和规律,进而探索并开发出延缓认知下降的方法和工具,对保持老年脑健康及提升生活质量具有重要意义.本文从脑结构老化、脑功能老化以及脑血流量与脑老化等方面概述了认知老化的神经机制.前人从补偿和去分化角度构建了多个认知老化理论和假说,然而,这些理论和假说较少考虑到脑结构老化、静息态研究及脑血流量的研究发现.坚持规律的运动、多做一些认知参与的活动、保持健康的生活方式和饮食模式,有助于老年人保持认知功能并延缓认知与脑老化.在老化认知神经科学未来发展方向上,从认知老化理论的发展以及成人毕生发展视角,对脑老化的脑功能网络研究、脑老化与可塑性以及基因对脑老化的影响等方面进行了展望.最后,本文从建立中国成人毕生发展行为-基因-脑数据库、使用和研发新技术研究认知老化、深入探索有效的脑功能改善方法、开展农村老年人研究及临床老年群体研究等方面,对国内老化认知神经科学的发展趋势进行了展望.     

代谢异速生长理论及其在微生物生态学领域的应用

新陈代谢是生物的基本生理过程,影响生物在不同环境中参与物质循环和能量转化的过程.代谢速率作为生物体重要的生命过程指标,几乎影响所有的生物活性速率,且在很多研究中均表现出异速生长现象.所谓代谢异速是指生物体代谢速率与其个体大小(或质量)之间存在的幂函数关系.代谢异速生长理论的提出,从机制模型角度解释了代谢异速关系这一普遍存在的生命现象.该理论利用分形几何学及流体动力学等原理,从生物能量学角度阐释了异速生长规律的机理,证实了3/4权度指数的存在;但同时有研究表明,权度指数因环境因素等影响处于2/3-1范围之间而非定值.随着研究工作的深入,代谢异速生长理论研究从起初的宏观动植物领域拓展到了微生物领域,在研究微生物的代谢异速生长理论时,可将微生物的可操作分类单元(Operational taxonomic unit,OTU)或具有特定功能的功能群视为一个微生物个体,基于其遗传多样性和功能多样性特征进行表征,以便于将微生物群落多样性与其生态功能性联系起来,使该理论在微生物生态学领域得到有效的补充和完善.尽管细菌具有独特的生物学特性,但与宏观生物系统中观测到的现象表现出明显的一致性.有研究表明,3个农田土壤细菌基于遗传多样性的OTU数的平均周转率分别为0.71、0.80和0.84,介于2/3与1之间,可能与生物代谢异速指数有一定关联,为微生物代谢异速指数的研究提出了一个参考解决方案.鉴于微生物个体特征和生物学特性,在分析代谢速率与个体大小关系中,从微生物单位个体的定义、个体大小表征到计量单位的统一,仍需更多的理论支持.分析了代谢异速生长理论在微生物与生态系统功能关系研究中的可能应用,延伸了该理论的应用范围,并对尚待加强的研究问题进行了评述和展望.     

Empathy in chimpanzees: Evidence for theory of mind?

Empathy can be widely defined as the capacity to understand the emotional, visual, or cognitive perspective of another individual and is perhaps reliant on the ability to attribute mental states. Behavioural events that may indicate empathy in chimpanzees,Pan troglodytes, are collated (1) using a questionnaire and (2) from the literature. These case studies are classified in a taxonomy of empathic acts in which empathy is categorized as visual empathy, emotional empathy, concordance and extended empathy. In addition, the circumstances surrounding the empathic acts are discussed: whether the recipient of the empathic act was a relative, an unfamiliar individual, or a heterospecific. The cost to the animal showing empathy, whether it displayed any levels of intentionality and if it communicated to a third party are also analyzed. Rescuing of an individual from a dangerous social or physical situation is the only category where the animal shows empathy under all the specified conditions. From this preliminary analysis it seems the chimpanzees may be capable of showing empathy across a wide range of circumstances.     

Une anatomie de l’empathie

Empathy refers to an emotional response that emanates either from the emotional state of another individual or from adopting another’ psychological point of view without losing sight of whose feelings belong to whom. This response is contingent on emotional as well as cognitive factors. Empathy involves not only the affective experience of the other person’s actual or inferred emotional state but also some minimal recognition and understanding of another’s emotional state. This article proposes, in the light of multiple levels of analysis ranging from clinical psychology, cognitive neuroscience and neuropsychology, a model of empathy that involves parallel and distributed processing in a number of dissociable computational mechanisms (in the prefrontal and parietal cortices of the right hemisphere). Affective sharing, self-awareness, mental flexibility and emotion regulation constitute the basic macro-components of empathy, which are underpinned by specific neural systems. This functional model is used to make specific predictions about the various empathy deficits that can be encountered in different forms of social and neurological disorders.     

Can We Learn to Treat One Another Better? A Test of a Social Intelligence Curriculum

This paper reports on the first test of the value of an online curriculum in social intelligence (SI). Built from current social and cognitive neuroscience research findings, the 50 session SI program was administered, with facilitation in Spanish by classroom instructors, to 207 students from Universidad Rey Juan Carlos in Madrid as part of their undergraduate classes. All materials were translated into Castilian Spanish, including outcome measures of SI that have been used in prior studies to provide valid estimates of two key components of social intelligence: 1) Sensitivity to others and 2) confidence in one’s capacity to manage social situations. Pre- and Posttest were administered to participants in the SI training, and also to 87 students in similar classes who did not receive the program who served as the control group. Gender and emotional intelligence levels at pretest also were examined as potential individual differences that might affect the impact of the program on study outcomes. Repeated measures ANOVAs on study outcomes revealed significant increases, from pre to post, in most measures of social intelligence for program participants in comparison to controls, with no effects of gender or age on program effectiveness. Prior scores on emotional intelligence were not a prerequisite for learning from the program. Some findings suggest ways the program may be improved to have stronger effects. Nonetheless, the findings indicate that the SI program tested here shows considerable promise as a means to increase the willingness of young adults to take the perspective of others and enhance their efficacy for initiating and sustaining positive social connections.     

Understanding others: Emotion recognition in humans and other animals

Emotion recognition represents the ability to encode an ensemble of sensory stimuli providing information about the emotional state of another individual. This ability is not unique to humans. An increasing number of studies suggest that many aspects of higher order social functions, including emotion recognition, might be present in species ranging from primates to rodents, indicating a conserved role in social animals. The aim of this review is to examine and compare how emotions are communicated and perceived in humans and other animals, with the intent to highlight possible new behavioral approaches and research perspectives. We summarize the evidence from human emotion recognition, and latest advances in the development of nonhuman animal behavioral tests, using or implying the use of this cognitive function. The differential implication of sensory modalities used by animals to communicate and decipher emotional states is also discussed. The opportunity to measure emotion recognition abilities in rodents may allow us to better identify the neural mechanisms mediating this complex function, thus promoting the development of new intervention strategies for several neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by social cognitive dysfunctions.     

How visual stimulus effects the time perception? The evidence from time perception of emotional videos

Time perception is defined as a subjective judgment on the elapsed time of an event. It can change according to both external and internal factors. There are two main paradigms of time perception; retrospective time perception (RTP) and prospective time perception (PTP). Two paradigms differ from each other according to whether the subject has knowledge on the importance of passage of time in the given task. Since RTP paradigm studies are harder to conduct, studies on RTP paradigm is far fewer than studies on PTP. Thus in the current study, both RTP and PTP paradigms are investigated. Also, time perception is discussed in relation to internal clock model and cognitive load. Emotional motion videos are used to create cognitive load and manipulate internal clock. Results showed the effect of emotion on time perception. Another major finding is that shorter videos are perceived longer whereas longer videos are perceived shorter as in accordance with Vierordt’s Law. However, there was no difference between RTP and PTP paradigms. These results indicate that emotional videos change our internal clock while a number of changes in a motion video create cognitive load causing disturbance of time perception.     

Emotional and cognitive changes during adolescence

Adolescence is a critical period for maturation of neurobiological processes that underlie higher cognitive functions and social and emotional behavior. Recent studies have applied new advances in magnetic resonance imaging to increase understanding of the neurobiological changes that occur during the transition from childhood to early adulthood. Structural imaging data indicate progressive and regressive changes in the relative volumes of specific brain regions, although total brain volume is not significantly altered. The prefrontal cortex matures later than other regions and its development is paralleled by increased abilities in abstract reasoning, attentional shifting, response inhibition and processing speed. Changes in emotional capacity, including improvements in affective modulation and discrimination of emotional cues, are also seen during adolescence. Functional imaging studies using cognitive and affective challenges have shown that frontal cortical networks undergo developmental changes in processing. In summary, brain regions that underlie attention, reward evaluation, affective discrimination, response inhibition and goal-directed behavior undergo structural and functional re-organization throughout late childhood and early adulthood. Evidence from recent imaging studies supports a model by which the frontal cortex adopts an increasingly regulatory role. These neurobiological changes are believed to contribute, in part, to the range in cognitive and affective behavior seen during adolescence.     

Affective empathy and prosocial behavior in rodents

Empathy is an essential function for humans as social animals. Emotional contagion, the basic form of afffective empathy, comprises the cognitive process of perceiving and sharing the affective state of others. The observational fear assay, an animal model of emotional contagion, has enabled researchers to undertake molecular, cellular, and circuit mechanism of this behavior. Such studies have revealed that observational fear is mediated through neural circuits involved in processing the affective dimension of direct pain experiences. A mouse can also respond to milder social stimuli induced by either positive or negative emotional changes in another mouse, which seems not dependent on the affective pain circuits. Further studies should explore how different neural circuits contribute to integrating different dimensions of affective empathy.     

Social Influences in Sequential Decision Making

People often make decisions in a social environment. The present work examines social influence on people’s decisions in a sequential decision-making situation. In the first experimental study, we implemented an information cascade paradigm, illustrating that people infer information from decisions of others and use this information to make their own decisions. We followed a cognitive modeling approach to elicit the weight people give to social as compared to private individual information. The proposed social influence model shows that participants overweight their own private information relative to social information, contrary to the normative Bayesian account. In our second study, we embedded the abstract decision problem of Study 1 in a medical decision-making problem. We examined whether in a medical situation people also take others’ authority into account in addition to the information that their decisions convey. The social influence model illustrates that people weight social information differentially according to the authority of other decision makers. The influence of authority was strongest when an authority''s decision contrasted with private information. Both studies illustrate how the social environment provides sources of information that people integrate differently for their decisions.