囊膜病毒膜融合分子机制研究进展

囊膜病毒通过病毒与宿主细胞膜融合的方式感染宿主,病毒囊膜蛋白介导了膜融合过程。根据这些囊膜蛋白在病毒囊膜表面的排列、蛋白结构及其在融合肽中的位置不同,可将囊膜病毒分为三类,其利用这些囊膜特殊的蛋白分子与受体相互作用完成膜融合。在分子水平上研究这一过程有助于认识病毒侵染的本质和发现关键环节,达到预防与治疗病毒病的目的。     

病毒跨膜蛋白的结构功能与抗病毒药物设计

根据病毒衣壳表面有无囊膜结构, 病毒可被分为无包膜病毒和有包膜病毒。包膜病毒的膜蛋白在病毒的吸附、侵入、脱壳、生物大分子合成、病毒粒子的装配与释放等生命周期中起重要作用。某些包膜病毒的膜蛋白对病毒侵入宿主细胞的膜融合是不可或缺的。结构分析显示, Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型病毒融合蛋白采用类似的膜融合方式。此外, 流行性感冒病毒的M2 蛋白、人类免疫缺陷病毒Ⅰ型( HIV-1) 的Vpu 蛋白、重症急性呼吸综合征冠状病毒( SARS-CoV) 3a蛋白等膜蛋白还具有离子通道的功能。针对这些病毒膜融合蛋白设计的抑制分子, 将为研发抗包膜病毒新型药物提供新思路和策略。本文以3 种病毒膜融合蛋白为例, 对其融合机制、跨膜蛋白离子通道功能及其在抗病毒药物设计中的应用作一简要综述。     

细胞受体介导的疱疹病毒侵入机制

疱疹病毒(Herpesviruses)是一类较大的双链DNA囊膜病毒,广泛感染人和多种动物,以皮肤、粘膜和神经组织的疱疹性病变为特征。病毒侵入宿主细胞为整个复制周期的首要环节,而受体是介导病毒吸附、内化以及膜融合等侵入过程的关键宿主因子。因此,对受体的研究已经成为了解病毒侵入机制以及开发抗病毒制剂的突破口。本综述介绍了与疱疹病毒侵入相关的受体分子以及在这些分子介导下的跨膜机制,同时讨论了目前疱疹病毒侵入方面仍存在的问题和未来的研究方向。     

囊膜病毒膜融合的分子机制

囊膜病毒可能采用相似的病毒-宿主细胞膜融合机制,即病毒表面糖蛋白结合到宿主细胞受体后,启动了病毒融合蛋白的一系列构象变化,根据囊膜蛋白构象变化特征,囊膜病毒可采用两种以上的方式发生膜融合,并据此分为两类：Ⅰ型病毒膜融合和Ⅱ型病毒膜融合.Ⅱ型病毒膜融合以黄病毒为代表,其分子机制与Ⅰ型病毒膜融合不同,但不很清楚.而Ⅰ型病毒膜融合中,如艾滋病毒,流感病毒等,在囊膜蛋白变构形成稳定折叠的发夹三聚体结构时,拉近了两膜之间的距离,此过程释放出来的能量进一步促使两膜融合.膜融合使病毒蛋白及病毒RNA基因组释放到宿主细胞内而感染宿主.以上述研究为基础设计的C肽/N肽小分子抑制子, 可以在病毒糖蛋白中间体构象形成的短时间内,高效、特异地竞争结合其配体,从而阻止糖蛋白的进一步折叠,达到抑制病毒入侵的目的,为病毒疾病的防治提供了新思路和策略.针对艾滋病毒设计的C肽,即T20或Enfuvirtide在临床应用效果很好.以艾滋病毒和流感病毒为例,主要对Ⅰ型病毒膜融合的研究进展进行了讨论.     

Ⅱ类囊膜病毒膜融合的分子机制

病毒囊膜与宿主细胞膜的膜融合是囊膜病毒入侵的重要过程,病毒囊膜融合糖蛋白的一系列结构变化引发此过程.综述了Ⅱ类囊膜病毒、弹状病毒及疱疹病毒融合蛋白结构与功能研究的最新进展,介绍了软件分析并定位融合蛋白功能区域的方法.Ⅱ类病毒与Ⅰ类病毒融合蛋白的融合前结构不同,但融合后结构(发夹三聚体结构)相似.弹状病毒与疱疹病毒的融合蛋白集合了Ⅰ/Ⅱ类融合蛋白的某些特征,但其结构变化及融合过程各不相同,被归为新型融合蛋白.上述研究为基础设计的以病毒融合过程为靶标的抑制子,可为抗病毒新药的研制提供新思路.     

小反刍兽疫病毒H和F蛋白在细胞融合中的作用

【目的】研究小反刍兽疫病毒囊膜糖蛋白(血凝素蛋白和融合蛋白)在病毒囊膜和宿主细胞膜融合过程中所发挥的作用。【方法】制备构建成功的小反刍兽疫病毒囊膜糖蛋白和病毒受体SLAM、Nectin4的真核表达质粒pCMV-HA-H、pCAGGS-Flag-F、pCMV-Myc-SLAM和pCMV-Myc-Nectin 4,将其组合转染至CHO-K1细胞,通过显微观察和间接免疫荧光技术分析小反刍兽疫病毒H和F蛋白在病毒融合过程中的功能。【结果】除空白对照组和重组质粒单独转染组细胞中没有发现合胞体外,其余组细胞中均出现了合胞体,而且F和H蛋白共转染组合胞体的数目明显较多;并在共表达H、F蛋白的细胞中观察到了蛋白分布极化的帽子现象。【结论】PPRV F蛋白是病毒囊膜和细胞膜融合的必需蛋白,但需要与PPRV H共同作用才能使病毒成功入侵靶细胞。     

疱疹病毒膜融合的分子机制

囊膜病毒与宿主细胞的膜融合是病毒入侵宿主细胞的重要过程,这一过程涉及到病毒囊膜表面糖蛋白与宿主细胞表面受体之间的相互作用和构象变化．疱疹病毒有多个糖蛋白及不同类型的细胞作用受体,相应的受体-糖蛋白复合体构成方式也有多种,其引致的膜融合机制被认为是目前病毒融合机制研究中最复杂的,近年来被广泛研究并取得突破性进展．从病毒糖蛋白与相应受体的结构与功能、受体-糖蛋白复合体的形成与入侵途径,以及膜融合模式几个方面,全面综述疱疹病毒膜融合的分子机制,并展望了未来研究趋势．     

昆虫杆状病毒经口感染因子P74的结构和功能

杆状病毒(Baculovirus)是一类具有囊膜包裹的双链环状DNA病毒,在自然界中以节肢动物(主要是昆虫)作为专一性宿主进行感染和传播。包涵体衍生型病毒是杆状病毒的一种表型,主要通过宿主经口食入引发感染。多种包涵体衍生型病毒囊膜蛋白在病毒原发感染过程中发挥作用,它们被称为经口感染因子。P74是最早被鉴定且研究最为深入的一种经口感染因子,本文从五个方面综述了国内外关于P74的研究成果。P74含有三个跨膜结构域和两个功能结构域。在病毒释放过程中,P74会分别受到包涵体内碱性蛋白酶和宿主中肠胰蛋白酶酶切,P74及其酶切产物和囊膜表面稳定复合物有微弱相互作用。作为病毒结合蛋白,P74和刷状缘囊膜中一个大小约为35kDa的蛋白存在相互作用,使得病毒结合到宿主细胞上。对P74结构和功能的深入研究将促进我们对昆虫杆状病毒原发感染详细分子机制的认识,并为农业生产病害控制提供参考。     

冠状病毒的基因组结构及特征

冠状病毒(Coronavirus)是具有包膜的正单链RNA病毒,基因组大小介于26 000与32 000 nt之间,编码刺突蛋白(S)、包膜蛋白(E)、膜蛋白(M)和核壳蛋白(N)等四种结构蛋白、复制酶(ORF1a/b)与若干辅助蛋白,部分病毒还具有血细胞凝集素酯酶(HE),这些蛋白除维持病毒结构,还有促进感染与抵抗宿主免疫反应等功能,其中刺突蛋白可与宿主细胞表面的受体结合,使病毒包膜和宿主细胞的膜融合以感染细胞.冠状病毒的感染会影响细胞的许多信号转导途径,引发免疫反应,是一类可感染哺乳动物与鸟类的病毒.     

尼帕病毒融合蛋白和受体结合蛋白基因DNA免疫的研究

构建了表达哺乳动物密码子优化的NiV囊膜蛋白F和G基因的真核表达质粒pCAGG-NiV-F和pCAGG-NiV-G.细胞融合试验表明,重组NiV融合蛋白F和受体结合蛋白G在pCAGG-NiV-F、pCAGG-NiV-G共转染BHK细胞中获得表达,并具有良好生物学活性.真核表达质粒pCAGG-NiV-F、pCAGG-NiV-G和pCAGG-NiV-F pCAGG-NiV-G DNA分别按100μg/只的剂量肌肉注射免疫6周龄BALB/c小鼠,间隔4周加强免疫,第二次加强免疫3周后采血,分离血清备用.分别以重组杆状病毒感染Sf9细胞表达的重组NiV融合蛋白(rNF)和受体结合蛋白(rNG)为包被抗原,应用间接ELISA检测上述质粒DNA免疫血清中的特异性抗体,具有较高的敏感性和特异性.另外,中和试验结果表明,DNA免疫小鼠产生的特异抗体可有效中和NiV囊膜蛋白F和G介导的伪型VSV重组病毒侵入NiV易感宿主细胞的感染性,并且受体结合蛋白G基因DNA诱导中和抗体的滴度高于融合蛋白F基因DNA.结果表明,DNA疫苗具有防制尼帕病毒性脑炎的潜力.     

Mechanism of CD150 (SLAM) down regulation from the host cell surface by measles virus hemagglutinin protein

Measles virus has been reported to enter host cells via either of two cellular receptors, CD46 and CD150 (SLAM). CD46 is found on most cells of higher primates, while SLAM is expressed on activated B, T, and dendritic cells and is an important regulatory molecule of the immune system. Previous reports have shown that measles virus can down regulate expression of its two cellular receptors on the host cell surface during infection. In this study, the process of down regulation of SLAM by measles virus was investigated. We demonstrated that expression of the hemagglutinin (H) protein of measles virus was sufficient for down regulation. Our studies provided evidence that interactions between H and SLAM in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) can promote the down regulation of SLAM but not CD46. In addition, we demonstrated that interactions between H and SLAM at the host cell surface can also contribute to SLAM down regulation. These results indicate that two mechanisms involving either intracellular interactions between H and SLAM in the ER or receptor-mediated binding to H at the surfaces of host cells can lead to the down regulation of SLAM during measles virus infection.     

Measles Virus Fusion Machinery Activated by Sialic Acid Binding Globular Domain

Paramyxoviruses, including the human pathogen measles virus (MV) and the avian Newcastle disease virus (NDV), enter host cells through fusion of the viral envelope with the target cell membrane. This fusion is driven by the concerted action of two viral envelope glycoproteins: the receptor binding protein and the fusion protein (F). The MV receptor binding protein (hemagglutinin [H]) attaches to proteinaceous receptors on host cells, while the receptor binding protein of NDV (hemagglutinin-neuraminidase [HN]) interacts with sialic acid-containing receptors. The receptor-bound HN/H triggers F to undergo conformational changes that render it competent to mediate fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. The mechanism of fusion activation has been proposed to be different for sialic acid-binding viruses and proteinaceous receptor-binding viruses. We report that a chimeric protein containing the NDV HN receptor binding region and the MV H stalk domain can activate MV F to fuse, suggesting that the signal to the stalk of a protein-binding receptor binding molecule can be transmitted from a sialic acid binding domain. By engineering the NDV HN globular domain to interact with a proteinaceous receptor, the fusion activation signal was preserved. Our findings are consistent with a unified mechanism of fusion activation, at least for the Paramyxovirinae subfamily, in which the receptor binding domains of the receptor binding proteins are interchangeable and the stalk determines the specificity of F activation.     

Measles Virus-Specified Polypeptide Synthesis in Two Persistently Infected HeLa Cell Lines

Measles virus-directed protein synthesis was examined in two HeLa cell lines (K11 and K11A) that are persistently infected with wild-type measles virus. Four viral proteins (H, hemagglutination protein; P, nucleocapsid-associated protein; NP, the major nucleocapsid protein; and M, the matrix protein) were readily detected in both cell lines by immune precipitation of [(35)S]methionine-labeled cell extracts followed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. When analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, three (H, NP, and M) of the four viral proteins in both K11 and K11A cells differed from the corresponding viral proteins synthesized in HeLa cells acutely infected with the parental wild-type virus. In addition, the M protein from K11A cells migrated significantly more slowly on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis than the M protein from K11 cells, and there appeared to be slight differences in the H and NP proteins between these two persistently infected cell lines. The altered viral proteins detected in K11 and K11A cells appeared to be the result of viral mutations rather than changes in the host cell, since virus recovered from these cells directed the synthesis of similar aberrant viral proteins in HeLa cells. Virus recovered from K11 cells and virus recovered from K11A cells were both temperature sensitive and grew more slowly than wild-type virus. HeLa cells infected with virus recovered from K11 cells readily became persistently infected, resembling the original persistently infected K11 cells. Thus, viral mutations are associated with persistent measles virus infections in cell cultures.     

Experimental Adaptation of Wild-Type Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) to the Human Entry Receptor CD150

Canine distemper virus (CDV), a close relative of measles virus (MV), is widespread and well known for its broad host range. When the goal of measles eradication may be achieved, and when measles vaccination will be stopped, CDV might eventually cross the species barrier to humans and emerge as a new human pathogen. In order to get an impression how fast such alterations may occur, we characterized required adaptive mutations to the human entry receptors CD150 (SLAM) and nectin-4 as first step to infect human target cells. Recombinant wild-type CDV-A75/17^red adapted quickly to growth in human H358 epithelial cells expressing human nectin-4. Sequencing of the viral attachment proteins (hemagglutinin, H, and fusion protein, F) genes revealed that no adaptive alteration was required to utilize human nectin-4. In contrast, the virus replicated only to low titres (10² pfu/ml) in Vero cells expressing human CD150 (Vero-hSLAM). After three passages using these cells virus was adapted to human CD150 and replicated to high titres (10⁵ pfu/ml). Sequence analyses revealed that only one amino acid exchange in the H-protein at position 540 Asp→Gly (D540G) was required for functional adaptation to human CD150. Structural modelling suggests that the adaptive mutation D540G in H reflects the sequence alteration from canine to human CD150 at position 70 and 71 from Pro to Leu (P70L) and Gly to Glu (G71E), and compensates for the gain of a negative charge in the human CD150 molecule. Using this model system our data indicate that only a minimal alteration, in this case one adaptive mutation, is required for adaptation of CDV to the human entry receptors, and help to understand the molecular basis why this adaptive mutation occurs.     

Measles virus-induced immune suppression in the cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus) model depends on viral glycoproteins.

Immune suppression during measles accounts for most of the morbidity and mortality associated with the virus infection. Experimental study of this phenomenon has been hampered by the lack of a suitable animal model. We have used the cotton rat to demonstrate that mitogen-induced proliferation of spleen cells from measles virus-infected animals is impaired. Proliferation inhibition is seen in all lymphocyte subsets and is not dependent on viral replication. Cells which express the viral glycoproteins (hemagglutinin and fusion protein) transiently by transfection induce proliferation inhibition after intraperitoneal inoculation, whereas application of a recombinant measles virus in which measles virus glycoproteins are replaced with the vesicular stomatitis virus G protein does not have an antiproliferative effect. Therefore, in vivo expression of measles virus glycoproteins is sufficient and necessary to induce inhibition of lymphocyte proliferation.     

Characterization of nucleocapsid binding by the measles virus and mumps virus phosphoproteins

We report an analysis of the interaction between the P protein and the RNA-associated N protein (N-RNA) for both measles and mumps viruses with proteins produced in a bacterial expression system. During this study, we verified that the C-terminal tail of the N protein is not required for nucleocapsid formation. For both measles and mumps virus N, truncated proteins encompassing amino acids 1 to 375 assemble into nucleocapsid-like particles within the bacterial cell. For measles virus N, the binding site for the P protein maps to residues 477 to 505 within the tail of the molecule, a sequence relatively conserved among the morbilliviruses. For mumps virus N, a binding site for the P protein maps to the assembly domain of N (residues 1 to 398), while no strong binding of the P protein to the tail of N was detected. These results suggest that the site of attachment for the polymerase varies among the paramyxoviruses. Pulldown experiments demonstrate that the last 50 amino acids of both measles virus and mumps virus P (measles virus P, 457 to 507; mumps virus P, 343 to 391) by themselves constitute the nucleocapsid-binding domain (NBD). Spectroscopic studies show that the NBD is predominantly alpha-helical in both viruses. However, only in measles virus P is the NBD stable and folded, having a lesser degree of tertiary organization in mumps virus P. With isothermal titration calorimetry, we demonstrate that the measles virus P NBD binds to residues 477 to 505 of measles virus N with 1:1 stoichiometry. The dissociation constant (K(d)) was determined to be 13 microM at 20 degrees C and 35 microM at 37 degrees C. Our data are consistent with a model in which an alpha-helical nucleocapsid binding domain, located at the C terminus of P, is responsible for tethering the viral polymerase to its template yet also suggest that, in detail, polymerase binding in morbilliviruses and rubulaviruses differs significantly.     

Measles viruses possessing the polymerase protein genes of the Edmonston vaccine strain exhibit attenuated gene expression and growth in cultured cells and SLAM knock-in mice

Live attenuated vaccines against measles have been developed through adaptation of clinical isolates of measles virus (MV) in various cultured cells. Analyses using recombinant MVs with chimeric genomes between wild-type and Edmonston vaccine strains indicated that viruses possessing the polymerase protein genes of the Edmonston strain exhibited attenuated viral gene expression and growth in cultured cells as well as in mice expressing an MV receptor, signaling lymphocyte activation molecule, regardless of whether the virus genome had the wild-type or vaccine-type promoter sequence. These data demonstrate that the polymerase protein genes of the Edmonston strain contribute to its attenuated phenotype.     

Antigenic modulation induced by monoclonal antibodies: antibodies to measles virus hemagglutinin alters expression of other viral polypeptides in infected cells

Polyclonal antibody to measles virus can have profound effects on external (outer plasma membrane) as well as internal (cytoplasmic) viral polypeptides expressed in infected cells. The process, termed "antibody-induced antigenic modulation," was further investigated by using monoclonal antibody to several viral polypeptides. Four monoclonal antibodies against the viral hemagglutinin had the ability to decrease the expression of the phosphoprotein, fusion, and membrane protein. A monoclonal antibody to the nucleocapsid protein did not cause these changes. The observed decreases were not due to preferential degradation of viral polypeptides as determined by pulse-chase experiments. Our results indicate that a specific signal to an epitope on the plasma membrane (monoclonal antibody measles virus hemagglutinin) can alter the expression of measles virus phosphoprotein and membrane protein, both polypeptides present in the cytoplasm of infected cells.     

A Single Amino Acid Change in the Hemagglutinin Protein of Measles Virus Determines Its Ability To Bind CD46 and Reveals Another Receptor on Marmoset B Cells

This paper provides evidence for a measles virus receptor other than CD46 on transformed marmoset and human B cells. We first showed that most tissues of marmosets are missing the SCR1 domain of CD46, which is essential for the binding of Edmonston measles virus, a laboratory strain that has been propagated in Vero monkey kidney cells. In spite of this deletion, the common marmoset was shown to be susceptible to infections by wild-type isolates of measles virus, although they did not support Edmonston measles virus production. As one would expect from these results, measles virus could not be propagated in owl monkey or marmoset kidney cell lines, but surprisingly, both a wild-type isolate (Montefiore 89) and the Edmonston laboratory strain of measles virus grew efficiently in B95-8 marmoset B cells. In addition, antibodies directed against CD46 had no effect on wild-type infections of marmoset B cells and only partially inhibited the replication of the Edmonston laboratory strain in the same cells. A direct binding assay with insect cells expressing the hemagglutinin (H) proteins of either the Edmonston or Montefiore 89 measles virus strains was used to probe the receptors on these B cells. Insect cells expressing Edmonston H but not the wild-type H bound to rodent cells with CD46 on their surface. On the other hand, both the Montefiore 89 H and Edmonston H proteins adhered to marmoset and human B cells. Most wild-type H proteins have asparagine residues at position 481 and can be converted to a CD46-binding phenotype by replacement of the residue with tyrosine. Similarly, the Edmonston H protein did not bind CD46 when its Tyr481 was converted to asparagine. However, this mutation did not affect the ability of Edmonston H to bind marmoset and human B cells. The preceding results provide evidence, through the use of a direct binding assay, that a second receptor for measles virus is present on primate B cells.