Geochemical Controls on Microbial Nitrate-Dependent U(IV) Oxidation

After reductive immobilization of uranium, the element may be oxidized and remobilized in the presence of nitrate by the activity of dissimilatory nitrate-reducing bacteria. We examined controls on microbially mediated nitrate-dependent U(IV) oxidation in landfill leachate-impacted subsurface sediments. Nitrate-dependent U(IV)-oxidizing bacteria were at least two orders of magnitude less numerous in these sediments than glucose- or Fe(II)-oxidizing nitrate-reducing bacteria and grew more slowly than the latter organisms, suggesting that U(IV) is ultimately oxidized by Fe(III) produced by nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria or by oxidation of Fe(II) by nitrite that accumulates during organotrophic dissimilatory nitrate reduction. We examined the effect of nitrate and reductant concentration on nitrate-dependent U(IV) oxidation in sediment incubations and used the initial reductive capacity (RDC = [reducing equivalents] - [oxidizing equivalents]) of the incubations as a unified measurement of the nitrate or reductant concentration. When we lowered the RDC with progressively higher nitrate concentrations, we observed a corresponding increase in the extent of U(IV) oxidation, but did not observe this relationship between RDC and U(IV) oxidation rate, especially when RDC > 0, suggesting that nitrate concentration strongly controls the extent, but not the rate of nitrate-dependent U(IV) oxidation. On the other hand, when we raised the RDC in sediment incubations with progressively higher reductant (acetate, sulfide, soluble Fe(II), or FeS) concentrations, we observed progressively lower extents and rates of nitrate-dependent U(IV) oxidation. Acetate was a relatively poor inhibitor of nitrate-dependent U(IV) oxidation, while Fe(II) was the most effective inhibitor. Based on these results, we propose that it may be possible to predict the stability of U(IV) in a bioremediated aquifer based on the geochemical characteristics of that aquifer.     

Transformation of vivianite by anaerobic nitrate-reducing iron-oxidizing bacteria

In phosphate-rich environments, vivianite (Fe^II₃(PO₄)₂, 8H₂O) is an important sink for dissolved Fe(II) and is considered as a very stable mineral due to its low solubility at neutral pH. In the present study, we report the mineralogical transformation of vivianite in cultures of the nitrate-reducing iron-oxidizing bacterial strain BoFeN1 in the presence of dissolved Fe(II). Vivianite was first transformed into a greenish phase consisting mostly of an amorphous mixed valence Fe-phosphate. This precipitate became progressively orange and the final product of iron oxidation consisted of an amorphous Fe(III)-phosphate. The sub-micrometer analysis by scanning transmission X-ray microscopy of the iron redox state in samples collected at different stages of the culture indicated that iron was progressively oxidized at the contact of the bacteria and at a distance from the cells in extracellular minerals. Iron oxidation in the extracellular minerals was delayed by a few days compared with cell-associated Fe-minerals. This led to strong differences of Fe redox in between these two types of minerals and finally to local heterogeneities of redox within the sample. In the absence of dissolved Fe(II), vivianite was not significantly transformed by BoFeN1. Whereas Fe(II) oxidation at the cell contact is most probably directly catalyzed by the bacteria, vivianite transformation at a distance from the cells might result from oxidation by nitrite. In addition, processes leading to the export of Fe(III) from bacterial oxidation sites to extracellular minerals are discussed including some involving colloids observed by cryo-transmission electron microscopy in the culture medium.     

Potential Role of Nitrite for Abiotic Fe(II) Oxidation and Cell Encrustation during Nitrate Reduction by Denitrifying Bacteria

Microorganisms have been observed to oxidize Fe(II) at neutral pH under anoxic and microoxic conditions. While most of the mixotrophic nitrate-reducing Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria become encrusted with Fe(III)-rich minerals, photoautotrophic and microaerophilic Fe(II) oxidizers avoid cell encrustation. The Fe(II) oxidation mechanisms and the reasons for encrustation remain largely unresolved. Here we used cultivation-based methods and electron microscopy to compare two previously described nitrate-reducing Fe(II) oxidizers ( Acidovorax sp. strain BoFeN1 and Pseudogulbenkiania sp. strain 2002) and two heterotrophic nitrate reducers (Paracoccus denitrificans ATCC 19367 and P. denitrificans Pd 1222). All four strains oxidized ∼8 mM Fe(II) within 5 days in the presence of 5 mM acetate and accumulated nitrite (maximum concentrations of 0.8 to 1.0 mM) in the culture media. Iron(III) minerals, mainly goethite, formed and precipitated extracellularly in close proximity to the cell surface. Interestingly, mineral formation was also observed within the periplasm and cytoplasm; intracellular mineralization is expected to be physiologically disadvantageous, yet acetate consumption continued to be observed even at an advanced stage of Fe(II) oxidation. Extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) were detected by lectin staining with fluorescence microscopy, particularly in the presence of Fe(II), suggesting that EPS production is a response to Fe(II) toxicity or a strategy to decrease encrustation. Based on the data presented here, we propose a nitrite-driven, indirect mechanism of cell encrustation whereby nitrite forms during heterotrophic denitrification and abiotically oxidizes Fe(II). This work adds to the known assemblage of Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria in nature and complicates our ability to delineate microbial Fe(II) oxidation in ancient microbes preserved as fossils in the geological record.     

Abiotic oxidation of Fe(II) by reactive nitrogen species in cultures of the nitrate‐reducing Fe(II) oxidizer Acidovorax sp. BoFeN1 – questioning the existence of enzymatic Fe(II) oxidation

Nitrate‐reducing, Fe(II)‐oxidizing bacteria were suggested to couple with enzymatic Fe(II) oxidation to nitrate reduction. Denitrification proceeds via intermediates (, NO) that can oxidize Fe(II) abiotically at neutral and particularly at acidic pH. Here, we present a revised Fe(II) quantification protocol preventing artifacts during acidic Fe extraction and evaluate the contribution of abiotic vs. enzymatic Fe(II) oxidation in cultures of the nitrate‐reducing, Fe(II) oxidizer Acidovorax sp. BoFeN1. Sulfamic acid used instead of HCl reacts with nitrite and prevents abiotic Fe(II) oxidation during Fe extraction. Abiotic experiments without sulfamic acid showed that acidification of oxic Fe(II) nitrite samples leads to 5.6‐fold more Fe(II) oxidation than in anoxic samples because the formed NO becomes rapidly reoxidized by O₂, therefore leading to abiotic oxidation and underestimation of Fe(II). With our revised protocol using sulfamic acid, we quantified oxidation of approximately 7 mm of Fe(II) by BoFeN1 within 4 days. Without addition of sulfamic acid, the same oxidation was detected within only 2 days. Additionally, abiotic incubation of Fe(II) with nitrite in the presence of goethite as surface catalyst led to similar abiotic Fe(II) oxidation rates as observed in growing BoFeN1 cultures. BoFeN1 growth was observed on acetate with N₂O as electron acceptor. When adding Fe(II), no Fe(II) oxidation was observed, suggesting that the absence of reactive N intermediates (, NO) precludes Fe(II) oxidation. The addition of ferrihydrite [Fe(OH)₃] to acetate/nitrate BoFeN1 cultures led to growth stimulation equivalent to previously described effects on growth by adding Fe(II). This suggests that elevated iron concentrations might provide a nutritional effect rather than energy‐yielding Fe(II) oxidation. Our findings therefore suggest that although enzymatic Fe(II) oxidation by denitrifiers cannot be fully ruled out, its contribution to the observed Fe(II) oxidation in microbial cultures is probably lower than previously suggested and has to be questioned in general until the enzymatic machinery‐mediating Fe(II) oxidation is identified.     

Anaerobic Biooxidation of Fe(II) by Dechlorosoma suillum

Anaerobic microbial oxidation of Fe(II) was only recently discovered and very little is known about this metabolism. We recently demonstrated that several dissimilatory perchlorate-reducing bacteria could utilize Fe(II) as an electron donor under anaerobic conditions. Here we report on a more in-depth analysis of Fe(II) oxidation by one of these organisms, Dechlorosoma suillum. Similarly to most known nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidizers, D. suillum did not grow heterotrophically or lithoautotrophically by anaerobic Fe(II) oxidation. In the absence of a suitable organic carbon source, cells rapidly lysed even though nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation was still occurring. The coupling of Fe(II) oxidation to a particular electron acceptor was dependent on the growth conditions of cells of D. suillum. As such, anaerobically grown cultures of D. suillum did not mediate Fe(II) oxidation with oxygen as the electron acceptor, while conversely, aerobically grown cultures did not mediate Fe(II) oxidation with nitrate as the electron acceptor. Anaerobic washed cell suspensions of D. suillum rapidly produced an orange/brown precipitate which X-ray diffraction analysis identified as amorphous ferric oxyhydroxide or ferrihydrite. This is similar to all other identified nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidizers but is in contrast to what is observed for growth cultures of D. suillum, which produced a mixed-valence Fe(II)-Fe(III) precipitate known as green rust. D. suillum rapidly oxidized the Fe(II) content of natural sediments. Although the form of ferrous iron in these sediments is unknown, it is probably a component of an insoluble mineral, as previous studies indicated that soluble Fe(II) is a relatively minor form of the total Fe(II) content of anoxic environments. The results of this study further enhance our knowledge of a poorly understood form of microbial metabolism and indicate that anaerobic Fe(II) oxidation by D. suillum is significantly different from previously described forms of nitrate-dependent microbial Fe(II) oxidation.     

Fe(II) Oxidation Is an Innate Capability of Nitrate-Reducing Bacteria That Involves Abiotic and Biotic Reactions

Phylogenetically diverse species of bacteria can catalyze the oxidation of ferrous iron [Fe(II)] coupled to nitrate (NO₃⁻) reduction, often referred to as nitrate-dependent iron oxidation (NDFO). Very little is known about the biochemistry of NDFO, and though growth benefits have been observed, mineral encrustations and nitrite accumulation likely limit growth. Acidovorax ebreus, like other species in the Acidovorax genus, is proficient at catalyzing NDFO. Our results suggest that the induction of specific Fe(II) oxidoreductase proteins is not required for NDFO. No upregulated periplasmic or outer membrane redox-active proteins, like those involved in Fe(II) oxidation by acidophilic iron oxidizers or anaerobic photoferrotrophs, were observed in proteomic experiments. We demonstrate that while “abiotic” extracellular reactions between Fe(II) and biogenic NO₂⁻/NO can be involved in NDFO, intracellular reactions between Fe(II) and periplasmic components are essential to initiate extensive NDFO. We present evidence that an organic cosubstrate inhibits NDFO, likely by keeping periplasmic enzymes in their reduced state, stimulating metal efflux pumping, or both, and that growth during NDFO relies on the capacity of a nitrate-reducing bacterium to overcome the toxicity of Fe(II) and reactive nitrogen species. On the basis of our data and evidence in the literature, we postulate that all respiratory nitrate-reducing bacteria are innately capable of catalyzing NDFO. Our findings have implications for a mechanistic understanding of NDFO, the biogeochemical controls on anaerobic Fe(II) oxidation, and the production of NO₂⁻, NO, and N₂O in the environment.     

Chemolithotrophic nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing nature of actinobacterial subdivision lineage TM3

Anaerobic nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation is widespread in various environments and is known to be performed by both heterotrophic and autotrophic microorganisms. Although Fe(II) oxidation is predominantly biological under acidic conditions, to date most of the studies on nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation were from environments of circumneutral pH. The present study was conducted in Lake Grosse Fuchskuhle, a moderately acidic ecosystem receiving humic acids from an adjacent bog, with the objective of identifying, characterizing and enumerating the microorganisms responsible for this process. The incubations of sediment under chemolithotrophic nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing conditions have shown the enrichment of TM3 group of uncultured Actinobacteria. A time-course experiment done on these Actinobacteria showed a consumption of Fe(II) and nitrate in accordance with the expected stoichiometry (1:0.2) required for nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation. Quantifications done by most probable number showed the presence of 1 × 10⁴ autotrophic and 1 × 10⁷ heterotrophic nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidizers per gram fresh weight of sediment. The analysis of microbial community by 16S rRNA gene amplicon pyrosequencing showed that these actinobacterial sequences correspond to ∼0.6% of bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences. Stable isotope probing using ¹³CO₂ was performed with the lake sediment and showed labeling of these Actinobacteria. This indicated that they might be important autotrophs in this environment. Although these Actinobacteria are not dominant members of the sediment microbial community, they could be of functional significance due to their contribution to the regeneration of Fe(III), which has a critical role as an electron acceptor for anaerobic microorganisms mineralizing sediment organic matter. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study to show the autotrophic nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing nature of TM3 group of uncultured Actinobacteria.     

Oxidation of Fe(II)‐EDTA by nitrite and by two nitrate‐reducing Fe(II)‐oxidizing Acidovorax strains

The enzymatic oxidation of Fe(II) by nitrate‐reducing bacteria was first suggested about two decades ago. It has since been found that most strains are mixotrophic and need an additional organic co‐substrate for complete and prolonged Fe(II) oxidation. Research during the last few years has tried to determine to what extent the observed Fe(II) oxidation is driven enzymatically, or abiotically by nitrite produced during heterotrophic denitrification. A recent study reported that nitrite was not able to oxidize Fe(II)‐EDTA abiotically, but the addition of the mixotrophic nitrate‐reducing Fe(II)‐oxidizer, Acidovorax sp. strain 2AN, led to Fe(II) oxidation (Chakraborty & Picardal, 2013). This, along with other results of that study, was used to argue that Fe(II) oxidation in strain 2AN was enzymatically catalyzed. However, the absence of abiotic Fe(II)‐EDTA oxidation by nitrite reported in that study contrasts with previously published data. We have repeated the abiotic and biotic experiments and observed rapid abiotic oxidation of Fe(II)‐EDTA by nitrite, resulting in the formation of Fe(III)‐EDTA and the green Fe(II)‐EDTA‐NO complex. Additionally, we found that cultivating the Acidovorax strains BoFeN1 and 2AN with 10 mm nitrate, 5 mm acetate, and approximately 10 mm Fe(II)‐EDTA resulted only in incomplete Fe(II)‐EDTA oxidation of 47–71%. Cultures of strain BoFeN1 turned green (due to the presence of Fe(II)‐EDTA‐NO) and the green color persisted over the course of the experiments, whereas strain 2AN was able to further oxidize the Fe(II)‐EDTA‐NO complex. Our work shows that the two used Acidovorax strains behave very differently in their ability to deal with toxic effects of Fe‐EDTA species and the further reduction of the Fe(II)‐EDTA‐NO nitrosyl complex. Although the enzymatic oxidation of Fe(II) cannot be ruled out, this study underlines the importance of nitrite in nitrate‐reducing Fe(II)‐ and Fe(II)‐EDTA‐oxidizing cultures and demonstrates that Fe(II)‐EDTA cannot be used to demonstrate unequivocally the enzymatic oxidation of Fe(II) by mixotrophic Fe(II)‐oxidizers.     

Dominance of a clonal green sulfur bacterial population in a stratified lake

For many years, the chemocline of the meromictic Lake Cadagno, Switzerland, was dominated by purple sulfur bacteria. However, following a major community shift in recent years, green sulfur bacteria (GSB) have come to dominate. We investigated this community by performing microbial diversity surveys using FISH cell counting and population multilocus sequence typing [clone library sequence analysis of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA locus and two loci involved in photosynthesis in GSB: fmoA and csmCA ]. All bacterial populations clearly stratified according to water column chemistry. The GSB population peaked in the chemocline ( c . 8 × 10⁶ GSB cells mL⁻¹) and constituted about 50% of all cells in the anoxic zones of the water column. At least 99.5% of these GSB cells had SSU rRNA, fmoA , and csmCA sequences essentially identical to that of the previously isolated and genome-sequenced GSB Chlorobium clathratiforme strain BU-1 (DSM 5477). This ribotype was not detected in Lake Cadagno before the bloom of GSB. These observations suggest that the C. clathratiforme population that has stabilized in Lake Cadagno is clonal. We speculate that such a clonal bloom could be caused by environmental disturbance, mutational adaptation, or invasion.     

Subseafloor microbial communities associated with rapid turbidite deposition in the Gulf of Mexico continental slope (IODP Expedition 308)

The subseafloor microbial communities in the turbidite depositional basins Brazos-Trinity Basin IV (BT Basin) and the Mars-Ursa Basin (Ursa Basin) on the Gulf of Mexico continental slope (IODP holes U1319A, U1320A, U1322B and U1324B) were investigated by PCR-dependent molecular analyses targeted to the small subunit (SSU) rRNA genes, dsrA and mcrA , and hydrogenase activity measurements. Biomass at both basins was very low, with the maximum cell or the SSU rRNA gene copy number <1 × 10⁷ cells mL⁻¹ or copies g⁻¹ sediments, respectively. Hydrogenase activity correlated with biomass estimated by SSU rRNA gene copy number when all data sets were combined. We detected differences in the SSU rRNA gene community structures and SSU rRNA gene copy numbers between the basin-fill and basement sediments in the BT Basin. Examination of microbial communities and hydrogenase activity in the context of geochemical and geophysical parameters and sediment depositional environments revealed that differences in microbial community composition between the basin-fill and basement sediments in the BT Basin were associated with sedimentation regimes tied to the sea-level change. This may also explain the distributions of relatively similar archaeal communities in the Ursa Basin sediments and basement sediments in the BT Basin.     

Microaerophilic, Fe(II)-dependent growth and Fe(II) oxidation by a Dechlorospirillum species

A species of Dechlorospirillum was isolated from an Fe(II)-oxidizing, opposing-gradient-culture enrichment using an inoculum from a circumneutral, freshwater creek that showed copious amounts of Fe(III) (hydr)oxide precipitation. In gradient cultures amended with a redox indicator to visualize the depth of oxygen penetration, Dechlorospirillum sp. strain M1 showed Fe(II)-dependent growth at the oxic-anoxic interface and was unable to utilize sulfide as an alternate electron donor. The bacterium also grew with acetate as an electron donor under both microaerophilic and nitrate-reducing conditions, but was incapable of organotrophic Fe(III) reduction or nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation. Although members of the genus Dechlorospirillum are primarily known as perchlorate and nitrate reducers, our results suggest that some species are members of the microbial communities involved in iron redox cycling at the oxic-anoxic transition zones in freshwater sediments.     

Three parameters comprehensively describe the temperature response of respiratory oxygen reduction

Using an exponential model that relies on Arrhenius kinetics, we explored Type I, Type II and dynamic (e.g. declining Q ₁₀ with increasing temperature) responses of respiration to temperature. Our Arrhenius model provides three parameters: R _REF (the base of the exponential model, nmol g⁻¹ s⁻¹), E ₀ (the overall activation energy of oxygen reduction that dominates its temperature sensitivity, kJ mol⁻¹) and δ (that describes dynamic responses of E ₀ to measurement temperature, 10³ K²). Two parameters, E ₀ and δ , are tightly linked. Increases in overall activation energy at a reference temperature were inversely related to changes in δ . At an E ₀ of ca. 45 kJ mol⁻¹, δ approached zero, and respiratory temperature response was strictly Arrhenius-like. Physiologically, these observations suggest that as contributions of AOX to combined oxygen reduction increase, E ₀( REF ) decreases because of different temperature sensitivities for V _max, and δ increases because of different temperature sensitivities for K _1/2 of AOX and COX. The balance between COX and AOX activity helps regulate plant metabolism by adjusting the demand for ATP to that for reducing power and carbon skeleton intermediates. Our approach enables determination of respiratory capacity in vivo and opens a path to development of process-based models of plant respiration.     

Effect of Oxidation Rate and Fe(II) State on Microbial Nitrate-Dependent Fe(III) Mineral Formation

A nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing bacterium was isolated and used to evaluate whether Fe(II) chemical form or oxidation rate had an effect on the mineralogy of biogenic Fe(III) (hydr)oxides resulting from nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation. The isolate (designated FW33AN) had 99% 16S rRNA sequence similarity to Klebsiella oxytoca. FW33AN produced Fe(III) (hydr)oxides by oxidation of soluble Fe(II) [Fe(II)_sol] or FeS under nitrate-reducing conditions. Based on X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, Fe(III) (hydr)oxide produced by oxidation of FeS was shown to be amorphous, while oxidation of Fe(II)_sol yielded goethite. The rate of Fe(II) oxidation was then manipulated by incubating various cell concentrations of FW33AN with Fe(II)_sol and nitrate. Characterization of products revealed that as Fe(II) oxidation rates slowed, a stronger goethite signal was observed by XRD and a larger proportion of Fe(III) was in the crystalline fraction. Since the mineralogy of Fe(III) (hydr)oxides may control the extent of subsequent Fe(III) reduction, the variables we identify here may have an effect on the biogeochemical cycling of Fe in anoxic ecosystems.     

Repeated anaerobic microbial redox cycling of iron

Some nitrate- and Fe(III)-reducing microorganisms are capable of oxidizing Fe(II) with nitrate as the electron acceptor. This enzymatic pathway may facilitate the development of anaerobic microbial communities that take advantage of the energy available during Fe-N redox oscillations. We examined this phenomenon in synthetic Fe(III) oxide (nanocrystalline goethite) suspensions inoculated with microflora from freshwater river floodplain sediments. Nitrate and acetate were added at alternate intervals in order to induce repeated cycles of microbial Fe(III) reduction and nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation. Addition of nitrate to reduced, acetate-depleted suspensions resulted in rapid Fe(II) oxidation and accumulation of ammonium. High-resolution transmission electron microscopic analysis of material from Fe redox cycling reactors showed amorphous coatings on the goethite nanocrystals that were not observed in reactors operated under strictly nitrate- or Fe(III)-reducing conditions. Microbial communities associated with N and Fe redox metabolism were assessed using a combination of most-probable-number enumerations and 16S rRNA gene analysis. The nitrate-reducing and Fe(III)-reducing cultures were dominated by denitrifying Betaproteobacteria (e.g., Dechloromonas) and Fe(III)-reducing Deltaproteobacteria (Geobacter), respectively; these same taxa were dominant in the Fe cycling cultures. The combined chemical and microbiological data suggest that both Geobacter and various Betaproteobacteria participated in nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation in the cycling cultures. Microbially driven Fe-N redox cycling may have important consequences for both the fate of N and the abundance and reactivity of Fe(III) oxides in sediments.     

Anaerobic nitrate-dependent iron(II) bio-oxidation by a novel lithoautotrophic betaproteobacterium, strain 2002

Microbial nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidation is known to contribute to iron biogeochemical cycling; however, the microorganisms responsible are virtually unknown. In an effort to elucidate this microbial metabolic process in the context of an environmental system, a 14-cm sediment core was collected from a freshwater lake and geochemically characterized concurrently with the enumeration of the nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing microbial community and subsequent isolation of a nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing microorganism. Throughout the sediment core, ambient concentrations of Fe(II) and nitrate were observed to coexist. Concomitant most probable number enumeration revealed the presence of an abundant nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing microbial community (2.4 x 10(3) to 1.5 x 10(4) cells g(-1) wet sediment) from which a novel anaerobic, lithoautotrophic, Fe(II)-oxidizing bacterium, strain 2002, was isolated. Analysis of the complete 16S rRNA gene sequence revealed that strain 2002 was a member of the beta subclass of the proteobacteria with 94.8% similarity to Chromobacterium violaceum, a bacterium not previously recognized for the ability to oxidize nitrate-dependent Fe(II). Under nongrowth conditions, both strain 2002 and C. violaceum incompletely reduced nitrate to nitrite with Fe(II) as the electron donor, while under growth conditions nitrate was reduced to gaseous end products (N2 and N2O). Lithoautotrophic metabolism under nitrate-dependent Fe(II)-oxidizing conditions was verified by the requirement of CO2 for growth as well as the assimilation of 14C-labeled CO2 into biomass. The isolation of strain 2002 represents the first example of an anaerobic, mesophilic, neutrophilic Fe(II)-oxidizing lithoautotroph isolated from freshwater samples. Our studies further demonstrate the abundance of nitrate-dependent Fe(II) oxidizers in freshwater lake sediments and provide further evidence for the potential of microbially mediated Fe(II) oxidation in anoxic environments.     

Wood composition and energy content in a poplar short rotation plantation on fertilized agricultural land in a future CO2 atmosphere

To study the influence of elevated CO₂ and nitrogen (N) fertilization on wood properties and energy, Populus × euramericana trees were exposed to ambient CO₂ (about 370 μmol mol⁻¹ CO₂) or elevated CO₂ (about 550 μmol mol⁻¹ CO₂) using Free Air CO₂ Enrichment (FACE) technology in combination with two N levels. Elevated CO₂ was maintained for 5 years. After three growing seasons, the plantation was coppiced, one half of each experimental plot was fertilized and secondary sprouts were harvested after two growing seasons. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectra of wood revealed significant effects of both elevated CO₂ and N fertilization on wood chemistry, in particular, significant increases in lignin and decreases in N content. These results were corroborated by chemical analysis. Neither elevated CO₂ nor N fertilization affected the calorific value of wood, which was 19.3 MJ kg⁻¹. N fertilization enhanced the energy production per land area by 16–69% because of higher aboveground woody biomass production than on nonfertilized land. Estimates indicate that high yielding poplar short rotation cultivation may significantly contribute as an alternative feedstock for energy production.     

微生物介导硝酸盐还原耦合亚铁氧化过程的动力学及其影响因素

【目的】探究不同菌浓度和亚铁浓度条件下,Acidovorax sp. strain BoFeN1介导的厌氧亚铁氧化耦合硝酸盐还原过程的动力学和次生矿物。【方法】构建包含菌BoFeN1、硝酸盐、亚铁的厌氧培养体系,测试硝酸根、亚硝酸根、乙酸根、亚铁等浓度,并收集次生矿物,采用XRD、SEM进行矿物种类和形貌表征。【结果】在微生物介导硝酸盐还原耦合亚铁氧化的体系中,高菌浓度促进硝酸盐还原,对亚铁氧化也有一定促进作用;高浓度亚铁在低菌浓度下氧化反应速率和程度降低,但是在高菌浓度下无明显影响;亚铁浓度越高次生矿物结晶度越高,但对硝酸盐还原具有一定抑制作用。在微生物介导亚硝酸盐还原耦合亚铁氧化的体系中,高的菌浓度和亚铁浓度都会促进亚硝酸盐还原,但亚铁氧化的次生矿物会对亚硝酸盐的微生物还原产生较强的抑制作用,次生矿物的种类和结晶度主要受亚铁浓度影响。【结论】硝酸盐还原主要是生物反硝化作用,亚硝酸盐还原包含生物反硝化和化学反硝化两部分,在硝酸盐体系中亚铁氧化与次生矿物生成是受生物和化学反硝化作用的共同影响,但亚硝酸盐体系中亚铁氧化与次生矿物生成主要是受化学反硝化作用影响。该研究可为深入理解厌氧微生物介导铁氮耦合反应机制提供基础数据和理论支撑。     

Microcystin-producing blooms of Anabaenopsis arnoldi in a potable mountain lake in Saudi Arabia

This study reports for the first time the presence of Anabaenopsis arnoldi blooms in Saudi freshwaters. This species has been investigated with high cell densities (3.8 × 10³–264 × 10³ cells mL⁻¹) during June–November 2007 in Tendaha Lake, one of the major freshwater sources in Saudi Arabia. High temperature and conductivity, and a high concentration of phosphate, and low nitrate concentrations may have contributed to the formation of these blooms. The blooms were found to produce microcystins (MCYSTs) at concentrations up to 364 μg g⁻¹ dry weight as detected by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. MCYSTs were also detected in the raw and treated water of the lake at concentrations (1.6–8.3 and 0.33–1.6 μg L⁻¹, respectively) exceeding the World Health Organization guideline level of 1 μg L⁻¹ for these toxins. HPLC analysis revealed that the extracts of A. arnoldi blooms contained MCYST-RR, -YR and two unidentified MCYSTs, but a pure culture of A. arnoldi isolated from Tendaha Lake during the present study produced MCYST-RR and –YR only. This is the first study to report MCYST production by A. arnoldi . Therefore, this cyanobacterium should be taken into consideration during monitoring of toxic cyanobacterial blooms in drinking and recreational water sources in the world, particularly arid and semi-arid countries including Saudi Arabia.