坝上地区农田及两种恢复生境中蜘蛛多样性与群落特征

蜘蛛是农田生态系统中重要的自然天敌,其生物多样性及群落特征直接决定了农田的害虫控制等生态系统服务功能质量。农田及其周边的恢复生境是蜘蛛重要的栖息地。本研究采用陷阱法,对河北省张家口市崇礼区871、1360、1635 m 3个海拔农田、自然恢复草地及人工修复林地的蜘蛛群落的物种组成、物种多样性和功能特征进行研究,分析不同恢复生境中蜘蛛群落特征。结果表明: 不同生境蜘蛛的物种多样性指数差异明显,人工修复林地蜘蛛的多度为124.3只,显著高于自然恢复草地(70.1)及农田(38.6)的蜘蛛多度;人工修复林地(16.3)与自然恢复草地(21.4)的物种丰富度没有显著差别,但均显著高于农田(8.9);人工修复林地(2.04)及自然恢复草地(2.05)的Shannon多样性指数差异不显著,且均显著高于农田(1.55)。3种生境的蜘蛛群落组成均具有显著差异;蜘蛛体长与蜘蛛捕猎类型呈正相关,大型蜘蛛倾向于通过捕猎获取食物;自然恢复草地与农田蜘蛛以游猎型为主,而人工修复林地倾向于拥有更多的结网型蜘蛛,高海拔地区的蜘蛛体积通常较小。自然恢复草地与人工修复林地均可以提升蜘蛛群落多样性,在区域生物多样性保护中起重要作用;不同生境蜘蛛群落组成出现了显著分化,即蜘蛛群落总体的功能特征发生改变和保留了部分生境特有种。2种恢复生境蜘蛛多样性指标优于农田生境,且2种恢复生境物种组成存在差异,均具有保护特有种的功能,研究结果对农田及区域尺度蜘蛛生物多样性保护与恢复具有指导意义。     

北京东北旺农田景观步甲群落结构的时空动态比较

2000年5～10月在北京海淀区东北旺实验基地,采用陷阱法对林地、农田边界和农田3类生境共14个处理的步甲进行了取样。并在此基础上分析了不同生境和不同季节步甲科昆虫群落的动态分布特征。结果表明,林地和农田边界类生境相对于农田类生境拥有更多的步甲个体数和物种数;无论是优势种还是稀有种都趋向于在林地和边界处生活;边界对相邻农田步甲群落的多样性有积极影响;对边界进行适度的干扰(秋季翻耕)有利于提高步甲群落的个体数量;农田生境中灌溉、施肥和秸秆还田对农田中步甲群落的个体数量和物种数量的空间分布均无显著影响。此外,还结合步甲的时空分布特性对步甲受威胁状况进行了初步的分析。     

坝上地区不同海拔农田和恢复半自然生境下尺蛾多样性

为研究生境恢复及地形变化导致的景观异质性对退化景观中生物多样性的影响,于2006和2007年对河北坝上3个不同海拔村庄的农田生境与恢复中的禁牧草地或再造林等半自然生境的尺蛾群落采用灯诱法进行取样调查,比较不同生境的尺蛾多样性.结果表明： 两种生境类型间物种数和个体数存在显著差异、不同海拔村庄物种数也存在显著差异,但不同海拔村庄间个体数差异不显著,不同海拔村庄间以及各村庄内农田和半自然生境稀疏标准化物种数和Fisher α指数无显著差异;非度量多维标度法(NMDS)显示不同海拔的不同生境下尺蛾群落结构显著不同.地形变化导致的景观异质性对坝上地区尺蛾群落组成及多样性影响显著,而无论是恢复中的草地、再造林等半自然生境还是农田生境均是维持尺蛾多样性的重要生境.注重不同地形条件下农田生境和半自然生境景观镶嵌体的保护对维持尺蛾群落γ多样性具有重要意义,但生境恢复能否促进尺蛾群落多样性恢复尚需长期监测.     

北京密云农业景观步甲群落空间分布格局

采用陷阱法对北京密云县西田各庄南部农业景观中玉米地、花生地、果园及半自然林地4种典型生境中的步甲群落进行调查分析.结果表明: 果园步甲群落α多样性最高,花生地最低,林地与玉米地居中,且二者无显著差异;林地、花生地及果园的步甲群落结构明显不同,但均与玉米地的步甲群落结构有不同程度的相似性.果园维持着较多的捕食性步甲和兼食性步甲个体数;且不同生境间捕食性步甲的物种周转率与兼食性步甲的差异更明显.低集约化的果园生境可能较半自然生境林地维持更高的步甲群落α多样性,但多样化的景观组成有利于维持步甲群落及捕食性步甲较高的β多样性.重视景观多样性和低集约化农田生境的保护对保护农业景观步甲群落多样性和实现其害虫控制功能具有重要的意义.     

农业景观步甲多样性时间格局及其与景观结构的关系

于2009年5-9月在北京密云县采用陷阱法对玉米地、花生地、果园和林地4种生境中步甲群落进行取样,并采用逐步线性回归分析了景观中优势生境类型——玉米地中步甲群落及其捕食性步甲功能群多样性的季节分布,及其与周围100、250和500 m半径范围内景观格局指数的关系.结果表明:不同生境下,8月步甲群落、捕食性步甲类群的个体数和物种数均达到最大;5月玉米地中步甲群落的物种数与取样点100 m半径范围内的景观连接度呈正相关,8月步甲群落个体数和500 m半径范围内的景观连接度呈负相关;5月玉米地中捕食性步甲群落不论是个体数还是物种数均与取样点100 m半径范围内景观连接度呈正相关,而8月捕食性步甲的物种数则与100 m尺度范围内的半自然生境的类型数呈负相关.可见,景观连接度、半自然生境的类型数对步甲及其中捕食性步甲群落动态的关键季节的多样性状况有显著影响,合理规划农田半自然用地类型组成、增加景观连接度可促进步甲群落多样性保护及其害虫生物控制功能的发挥.     

黄河下游农业景观中不同生境类型地表节肢动物优势类群

生物多样性是连接景观异质性与生态系统服务的桥梁。在区域尺度上,以指示类群代替地表节肢动物类群,可以有效的开展生物多样性的保护工作。但是,在黄河下游农业景观中,关于地表节肢动物指示类群的研究报道较少。以黄河下游农业景观中4种生境类型(农田、林地、树篱和沟渠)为研究样地,且在农田生境中划分不同尺度(尺度1,3.6 hm2、尺度2,14 hm2和尺度3,28 hm2),通过调查不同生境中地表节肢动物分布及其多样性,结合地表节肢动物优势类群的辨识,分析了优势类群和地表节肢动物多样性的相关性,确定了研究区内地表节肢动物多样性的指示类群。结果发现:研究区内地表节肢动物优势类群为膜翅目、鞘翅目和蜘蛛目。树篱和林地生境的地表节肢动物多样性指示类群是膜翅目,农田生境中地表节肢动物多样性指示类群是鞘翅目,沟渠生境中地表节肢动物多样性指示类群是蜘蛛目。农田生境中优势类群间无相关性(P0.05);林地、沟渠和树篱生境中鞘翅目与蜘蛛目之间存在显著正相关(P0.01);林地和沟渠生境中,鞘翅目与膜翅目之间存在正相关(P0.05)。在农田生境中优势类群之间的相关性存在尺度依赖性,随着空间尺度的增大,相关性有一定的增强。在尺度2和尺度3上膜翅目和鞘翅目均存在正相关(P0.05),并且随着尺度增加而呈上升趋势。研究表明,黄河下游农业景观中不同生境类型地表节肢动物多样性的指示类群差别较大,其中树篱和林地生境具有较高的相似性,而农田生境地表节肢动物优势类群相关性存在尺度依赖性。在黄河下游农业景观中,以优势类群多样性代替地表节肢动物类群的多样性,可以在条件不足、时间紧迫的情况下更加有效的开展生物多样性的保护工作。     

松嫩平原不同生境蝴蝶群落多样性及其保护建议

随着气候变化加剧和人类活动影响，生物多样性变化及其保护逐渐受到广泛关注。蝴蝶作为开花植物的传粉媒介和生态环境监测及评价的关键指示者，其多样性变化能够在一定程度上反映生境状况，因此，有必要清晰认识不同生境中的蝴蝶多样性变化。为明确松嫩平原蝴蝶资源和不同生境的群落多样性差异，采用样线法于2016年5月-2018年8月对松嫩平原的割草草地、湿地、农田、放牧利用草地及恢复草地共五种生境类型进行调查研究。结果发现，调查共记录蝴蝶5108头，隶属于6科21属26种，其中牧女珍眼蝶（Coenonympha amaryllis）和红珠灰蝶（Plebejus argyrognomon）为优势种类，分别占蝴蝶个体总数的25.61%和31.66%，且在五种生境类型中均有分布。不同生境类型中，蝴蝶群落的物种丰富度指数和均匀度指数无明显差异，而恢复草地生境的蝴蝶群落Shannon-Wiener多样性指数较高，优势度指数较低。农田生境中的蝴蝶个体数量较少，且群落组成与其他四种生境之间均具有显著差异。五种生境类型中的蝴蝶数量和多样性均呈现一定的月动态和年动态变化趋势。除湿地和农田外，其余三种生境中蝴蝶物种和个体数量从5月到8月均持续升高。四种生境的蝴蝶物种数量、个体数量（除农田外）在2018年均出现明显下降趋势。物种丰富度指数等指标的月动态和年动态在不同生境类型间存在较大差异。这些结果表明，生境类型和人类活动与蝴蝶多样性变化关系密切，表现为单一生境中蝴蝶多样性较低，复杂生境有利于保护蝴蝶多样性。本研究有助于厘清松嫩平原蝴蝶资源的基础数据，并为该地区蝴蝶多样性保护和利用及评估该区域生态环境提供一定理论支撑。     

宁夏黄土丘陵区不同生态恢复生境地表甲虫多样性

为了解宁夏黄土丘陵区不同生境地表甲虫群落多样性变化规律及与环境因子的关系, 并探讨不同生态恢复措施对维持地表甲虫群落多样性的影响, 2013年7-8月, 作者利用陷阱法调查了该区6种生境内的地表甲虫群落多样性。结果表明: 灌草混交林地、乔灌混交林地、生态薪炭林地中地表甲虫物种丰富度和个体数量均较高, 天然封育草地、生态经济林地和水平农田中物种丰富度较低, 生态经济林地和水平农田中甲虫个体数量显著高于天然封育草地。不同生境间, 灌草混交林地、乔灌混交林地与生态薪炭林地之间、生态经济林地与水平农田之间甲虫群落组成相似性较高。多元回归分析表明, 草本层生物量、灌木层盖度及土壤含水量是影响甲虫物种丰富度的决定因素, 林冠层盖度和枯落物厚度是决定地表甲虫个体数量的重要因素。CCA分析表明, 枯落物盖度、枯落物厚度、林冠层盖度及草本层盖度是影响地表甲虫群落组成的重要环境因子。研究表明, 灌草混交林地为地表甲虫群落多样性维持较好的生境类型, 是宁夏黄土丘陵区典型生态恢复的最优模式。     

农田节肢动物类群不同分类级别和个体数对物种数的替代效果

农田生物多样性评价中常采用指示类群基于物种鉴定水平的数据计算多样性指数,如果能用高级别的分类鉴定结果(如科)或直接用该指示类群个体数来代替该类群物种水平上的多样性指数,可以极大地节省鉴定的成本和降低鉴定难度。同时采用多个指示类群田间取样数据和多种分析方法验证这个问题有助于获得更为普适的结论。为研究农田节肢动物不同分类级别和个体数对于物种丰富度的替代效果,于2019年5-8月在浙江省宁波市的两片不同管理措施和多生境的农田景观区进行了节肢动物群取样调查,并对蜘蛛和蜂类两个类群进行了科级和物种级别的鉴定。通过分析目级和科级分类水平的数目、指示类群的个体数与物种丰富度之间的相关性;并基于这4个指数进行不同管理措施和生境间的双因素方差分析;同时基于目级、科级和物种级别数据,采用非度量多维尺度分析(NMDS)对比他们在不同管理措施和生境间的种类组成差异。结果显示:(1)将蜘蛛、蜂类分类至科级可分别拟合其物种水平数据63%和89%的变异性,并且比目级的数据相关性更大。(2)两个指示类群的个体数与物种数之间都有极为显著的相关性,且r≥0.7。(3)比起目级数,科级数和个体数在不同管理措施和生境间的差异结果和物种数更类似。(4)基于分科数据的NMDS在不同管理措施和生境间差异的结果也和物种级别数据的结果更类似。因此,在农田生物多样性的评估中,可以在一定程度上采用较高层次分类的数据,其中科级水平的数据作为首选,从而降低分类鉴定难度并提高工作效率。在需要快速进行蜘蛛和蜂类等基于大量标本数目的生物多样性评估时,可直接统计指示类群个体数量来替代物种数结果。     

苜蓿-荒漠草地交错带步甲昆虫多样性

选取宁夏东部盐池县苜蓿-荒漠草地交错带为研究样地,以距离梯度形式,利用巴氏诱罐法对步甲科昆虫群落多样性进行了调查,共采集步甲昆虫1944头,分属11属22种。结果表明,直角通缘步甲Pterostichus gebleri个体数量占总个体数的67.90%,为该地区的优势种类。物种多样性和均匀度沿苜蓿草地、边缘到荒漠草地依次升高,步甲个体数量沿苜蓿草地、边缘到荒漠草地则依次降低,且显著差异。主成分PCo A排序表明边缘与苜蓿草地和荒漠草地都有部分相似,苜蓿草地内部和荒漠草地间的步甲群落组成差异较大,反映了苜蓿草地内部与荒漠草地内部的群落组成开始明显分化。从季节动态看,苜蓿草地和边缘物种多样性、均匀度季节变化相似,荒漠草地和苜蓿草地的优势度季节变化相似,3种生境步甲物种丰富度、活动密度季节变化相似。边缘效应强度分析呈现边缘正效应。多元回归分析说明植被密度是影响步甲的Shannon-Wiener多样性和优势度,植被密度和植被盖度是影响整个群落步甲和优势种直角通缘步甲活动密度的决定因素。     

Urban Grassland Restoration: A Neglected Opportunity for Biodiversity Conservation

Urbanization is one of the most severe threats to biodiversity, so why should not we use green space in cities to counteract the biodiversity loss as much as possible? Urban grasslands provide a large number of social, financial, recreational, and environmental ecosystem services but can also support high biodiversity. In this article, I describe the importance of urban grasslands for (local) biodiversity and recommend strengthening restoration ecological research and efforts to optimize these novel ecosystems for conservation purposes. The management intensity of a high proportion of urban grasslands decreased over the last decades. However, species richness of these grasslands is still low, although there is now a great potential for higher plant, but also animal diversity. While communal authorities are interested in cost‐efficient but at the same time biodiversity‐friendly management of urban grasslands, a well‐founded scientific basis for the restoration of urban grassland is still missing. I argue that besides all challenges associated with the restoration of urban habitats we should urgently proceed in the development of appropriate and effective restoration approaches and communicate knowledge gained to urban planners and stakeholders. Widening the scope of restoration ecological research to novel ecosystems such as urban grasslands is one of the most important recent challenges for biodiversity restoration and it gives urban habitats the significance they deserve .     

Biodiversity associated with restored small-scale mussel habitats has restoration decision implications

The global loss of marine ecosystem engineers has caused an unprecedented decline in biodiversity. Although wild shellfish habitats have been shown to support biodiverse ecosystems, little is known about how biodiversity is altered by restored shellfish habitats, particularly mussels. To explore the biodiversity response to restored mussel habitats we deposited mussels on the seafloor in 1.5?×?1.5 m plots across a gradient of benthic environments. To understand a holistic community response, this study looks at the response of three faunal classifications over 1 year: infauna, epifauna, and pelagic fauna, compared with adjacent control plots (no mussels). The restored mussel habitats recorded 42 times more demersal fish than control areas, while macroalgae and mobile benthic invertebrates had over a twofold increase in abundance. Overall, the addition of mussels to the seafloor resulted in a general reduction of infaunal abundance and biodiversity, but an increase in epifaunal and pelagic faunal abundances, specifically from those species that benefit from benthic habitat complexity and an increase in food availability. From a management perspective, we highlight location-specific differences to consider for future restoration efforts, including environmental conditions and potential observed factors such as nearby sources of species, particularly predators, and relevant demersal fish ranges. Ultimately, measuring biodiversity responses in small-scale studies will serve as a valuable guide for larger scale restoration efforts and this study recommends considerations to enhance biodiversity outcomes in restored mussel habitats.

     

A Method for Evaluating Outcomes of Restoration When No Reference Sites Exist

Ecological restoration typically seeks to shift species composition toward that of existing reference sites. Yet, comparing the assemblages in restored and reference habitats assumes that similarity to the reference habitat is the optimal outcome of restoration and does not provide a perspective on regionally rare off-site species. When no such reference assemblages of species exist, an accurate assessment of the habitat affinities of species is crucial. We present a method for using a species by habitat data matrix generated by biodiversity surveys to evaluate community responses to habitat restoration treatments. Habitats within the region are rated on their community similarity to a hypothetical restored habitat, other habitats of conservation concern, and disturbed habitats. Similarity scores are reinserted into the species by habitat matrix to produce indicator ( I ) scores for each species in relation to these habitats. We apply this procedure to an open woodland restoration project in north Mississippi (U.S.A.) by evaluating initial plant community responses to restoration. Results showed a substantial increase in open woodland indicators, a modest decrease in generalists historically restricted to floodplain forests, and no significant change in disturbance indicators as a group. These responses can be interpreted as a desirable outcome, regardless of whether species composition approaches that of reference sites. The broader value of this approach is that it provides a flexible and objective means of predicting and evaluating the outcome of restoration projects involving any group of species in any region, provided there is a biodiversity database that includes habitat and location information.     

基于站点的生物多样性星空地一体化遥感监测

科学制定生物多样性保护和恢复政策, 需要空间上连续、时间上高频的物种和生境分布以及物种迁移信息支持, 遥感是目前能满足该要求的有效技术手段。近年来, 遥感平台和载荷技术高速发展, 综合多平台、多尺度、多模式遥感技术, 开展基于站点的星空地一体化遥感观测试验, 可以对地表进行时空多维度、立体连续观测, 为生物多样性遥感监测提供了新的契机。本文总结了使用遥感技术监测生物多样性的主要方法, 回顾了典型的星空地一体化遥感观测试验。综述以往研究发现, 一方面, 现有遥感试验还缺少对生物多样性直接监测指标的观测, 另一方面, 生物多样性遥感监测方法也缺少星空地多维立体观测平台的支撑, 亟需加强两者的融合, 开展基于站点的生物多样性星空地一体化遥感监测研究。以设于我国四川王朗大熊猫国家级自然保护区内的王朗山地生态遥感综合观测试验站为例, 展示了星空地一体化遥感综合观测试验平台在生物多样性监测中的应用潜力。星空地一体化遥感观测可以提供物种和生境的综合定量信息, 与生态模型有机结合, 可以刻画生物多样性的时空格局与动态过程, 有助于挖掘过程机理, 提高生物多样性监测的信息化水平。     

Using prioritisation tools to strategically restore vegetation communities in fragmented agricultural landscapes

Restoring native habitats in heavily cleared and fragmented areas such as agricultural landscapes is important to maintain and increase remaining native floral and faunal communities. Identifying priority vegetation types for restoration – as well as the parcels of land where this restoration could take place at a landscape scale – may assist in strategically protecting these biodiversity assets. To prioritise the restoration of terrestrial habitats around an ecologically and culturally significant Ramsar‐listed wetland in South Australia, we used the spatial prioritisation tool Marxan. Originally designed for prioritising the protection of reserve areas, Marxan can also be used to identify parcels of land for restoration purposes. We tested how Marxan prioritised the restoration of four distinct vegetation types around the Coorong and Lower Lakes region of South Australia using the inverse of habitat remnancy as a cost and soil type and distance to ecologically significant bird species as a conservation feature. By prioritising restoration activities around certain landscape features, such as remnant areas, our results indicate that we would be able to strategically restore parcels of native habitat that would maximise biodiversity outcomes. This study highlights the need for robust input data, such as priority vegetation types and bird species associated with these habitats, to ensure informative modelling outputs. It also suggests that other measures, such as the cost of different land types, should be included in future restoration planning. Finally, we illustrate how prioritisation tools such as Marxan can be used by natural resource managers to restore areas within fragmented agricultural landscapes.     

受损河岸生态修复工程的土壤生物学评价

为探索受损河岸生态修复的理论与技术,以修复4年的河岸生态修复工程为研究对象,从土壤生物学角度评价了人工构建的河岸生境缀块对受损河岸生态系统的修复作用.结果表明,经过4年的恢复,修复区土壤中各种微生物的数量明显高于对照区;修复区土壤动物种类、数量、生物多样性指数以及土壤有机质、N、P、K含量均高于对照区.修复后,受损河岸的土壤性状得到了明显改善,土壤生物多样性及河岸生态系统稳定性得到了提高.人工构建生境缀块的河岸生态修复工程不仅经济成本低,而且具有生态、景观和社会价值,为已建混凝土河岸的生态改造和受损河岸的近自然修复提供了新模式.     

Is forest landscape restoration socially desirable? A discrete choice experiment applied to the Scandinavian transboundary Fulufjället National Park Area

Using an economic valuation approach, we assessed people's stated preferences for policy aimed at enhancing restoration of functional networks of naturally dynamic boreal forest habitats as a public good. Active landscape restoration can improve the functionality of boreal forest habitats as green infrastructure, which is essential for biodiversity conservation and delivery of multiple ecosystem services that production forests are poor at providing. In contrast, so far designation of protected areas in Fennoscandia has focused on remnant patches of near‐natural forests, and not on forest landscape restoration. We assessed citizens' preferences for forest landscape restoration in a transboundary region primarily managed for sustained‐yield wood production for the forest industry, and which hosts the transboundary Fulufjället National Parks in Sweden and Norway. We conducted a discrete choice experiment by asking Swedish and Norwegian citizens to choose among two options for the Fulufjället area, including (1) extension of passive protection on one side or both sides of the border, by additional area protection and restoration of forest naturalness, and (2) a status quo option. The scenario assumed that extension of the protected forest area would imply a compulsory tax administered bilaterally by the two countries. Just over half of the sample, in both countries expressed willingness to pay for forest landscape restoration. Alternatives that contemplated larger extensions of forest landscape restoration were assigned higher willingness‐to‐pay. Public awareness and support, combined with spatial planning, are necessary for forest landscape restoration to become a viable tool for biodiversity conservation in Scandinavia.     

Ecological Restoration in a Developing Island Nation: How Useful is the Science?

Restoration science is a relatively young branch of ecology that is growing in importance owing to the sheer scale and trend of habitat degradation worldwide and the range of strong benefits that it is seen to potentially carry. Although spearheaded mainly by developed countries, its usefulness at least for the conservation of biodiversity may be greatest in the developing world. Here we examine how Mauritius, a developing island nation that may be regarded as well equipped among developing countries in terms of access to restoration science, is using science to inform the ecological restoration of its degraded native habitats for biodiversity conservation. While Mauritius is known for a number of proactive and at times innovative approaches that may even be setting the pace worldwide, we found that the restoration activities which are impacting the largest areas and an overwhelming proportion of native biodiversity of the country sometimes remain averse to even basic ecological principles. This includes the removal from restoration areas of fast growing native pioneer species with proven nurse‐tree potential to be replaced by a multitude of nursery grown and much slower growing plants that would have naturally grown anyway. Besides representing setbacks to areas undergoing restoration, this elevates restoration costs in the face of scarcity of conservation resources and urgency to restore more than the tiny and isolated areas currently targeted. Research worldwide continues to improve restoration science but blockages to knowledge transfer can seriously undermine its impact where it is most needed.     

Restoration Enhances Wetland Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service Supply,but Results Are Context-Dependent: A Meta-Analysis

Wetlands are valuable ecosystems because they harbor a huge biodiversity and provide key services to societies. When natural or human factors degrade wetlands, ecological restoration is often carried out to recover biodiversity and ecosystem services (ES). Although such restorations are routinely performed, we lack systematic, evidence-based assessments of their effectiveness on the recovery of biodiversity and ES. Here we performed a meta-analysis of 70 experimental studies in order to assess the effectiveness of ecological restoration and identify what factors affect it. We compared selected ecosystem performance variables between degraded and restored wetlands and between restored and natural wetlands using response ratios and random-effects categorical modeling. We assessed how context factors such as ecosystem type, main agent of degradation, restoration action, experimental design, and restoration age influenced post-restoration biodiversity and ES. Biodiversity showed excellent recovery, though the precise recovery depended strongly on the type of organisms involved. Restored wetlands showed 36% higher levels of provisioning, regulating and supporting ES than did degraded wetlands. In fact, wetlands showed levels of provisioning and cultural ES similar to those of natural wetlands; however, their levels of supporting and regulating ES were, respectively, 16% and 22% lower than in natural wetlands. Recovery of biodiversity and of ES were positively correlated, indicating a win-win restoration outcome. The extent to which restoration increased biodiversity and ES in degraded wetlands depended primarily on the main agent of degradation, restoration actions, experimental design, and ecosystem type. In contrast, the choice of specific restoration actions alone explained most differences between restored and natural wetlands. These results highlight the importance of comprehensive, multi-factorial assessment to determine the ecological status of degraded, restored and natural wetlands and thereby evaluate the effectiveness of ecological restorations. Future research on wetland restoration should also seek to identify which restoration actions work best for specific habitats.